《2021 年亚太贸易便利化报告》：跨境贸易数字化具有巨大潜力-87正式版

Asia-PacificTradeFacilitationReportꢀꢁꢀꢂSupplyChainsofCriticalGoodsamidtheCOVID-ꢀꢁPandemic—Disruptions,Recovery,andResilienceSupplychaindisruptionscausedbythecoronavirusdisease(COVID-ꢁꢄ)pandemichaveunderscoredtheneedfordigitalandpaperlesstradeprocedurestofacilitatetrade.ThisreportreviewstheimpactoftradefacilitationinitiativesontradecostsinAsiaandthePacificsincethepandemicbegan.Aspecialchapterexaminesthepandemic’simpactonthesupplychainsofcriticalgoodssuchasvaccines,personalprotectiveequipment,andfood,andprovidespolicysuggestionstowardenhancingsupplychainresiliencealongwithtradefacilitation.ThisisthethirdbiennialprogressreportontradefacilitationimplementationinAsiaandthePacificjointlypreparedbytheAsianDevelopmentBankandtheUnitedNationsEconomicandSocialCommissionforAsiaandthePacific.AbouttheUnitedNationsEconomicandSocialCommissionforAsiaandthePacificTheUnitedNationsEconomicandSocialCommissionforAsiaandthePacific(ESCAP)isthemostinclusiveintergovernmentalplatformintheAsiaandPacificregion.Thecommissionpromotescooperationamongitsꢂꢅmemberstatesandꢄassociatemembersinpursuitofsolutionstosustainabledevelopmentchallenges.ESCAPisoneofthefiveregionalcommissionsoftheUnitedNations.TheESCAPsecretariatsupportsinclusive,resilientandsustainabledevelopmentintheregionbygeneratingaction-orientedknowledge,andbyprovidingtechnicalassistanceandcapacity-buildingservicesinsupportofnationaldevelopmentobjectives,regionalagreements,andtheimplementationoftheꢆꢃꢅꢃAgendaforSustainableDevelopment.AbouttheAsianDevelopmentBankASIAꢀPACIFICTRADEFACILITATIONREPORTꢁꢂꢁꢃADBiscommittedtoachievingaprosperous,inclusive,resilient,andsustainableAsiaandthePacific,whilesustainingitseꢇortstoeradicateextremepoverty.Establishedinꢁꢄꢀꢀ,itisownedbyꢀꢈmembers—ꢉꢄfromtheregion.Itsmaininstrumentsforhelpingitsdevelopingmembercountriesarepolicydialogue,loans,equityinvestments,guarantees,grants,andtechnicalassistance.SUPPLYCHAINSOFCRITICALGOODSAMIDTHECOVIDꢀꢃꢄPANDEMICDISRUPTIONS,RECOVERY,ANDRESILIENCEOCTOBERꢁꢂꢁꢃASIA-PACIFICTRADEFACILITATIONREPORT2021SUPPLYCHAINSOFCRITICALGOODSAMIDTHECOVID-19PANDEMICDISRUPTIONS,RECOVERY,ANDRESILIENCEOCTOBER2021ꢀCreativeCommonsAttribution3.0IGOlicense(CCBY3.0IGO)©2021AsianDevelopmentBank6ADBAvenue,MandaluyongCity,1550MetroManila,PhilippinesTel+63286324444;Fax+63286362444UNESCAPhasgrantedpermissiontouseUNESCAP-copyrightedmaterialforthisWork,andtomakethematerialavailableunderanopenaccesslicense.Somerightsreserved.Publishedin2021.ISBN978-92-9269-062-5(print);978-92-9269-063-2(electronic);978-92-9269-064-9(ebook)PublicationStockNo.SPR210365-2DOI:/10.22617/SPR210365-2TheviewsexpressedinthispublicationarethoseoftheauthorsanddonotnecessarilyreflecttheviewsandpoliciesofꢀtheAsianDevelopmentBank(ADB)oritsBoardofGovernorsorthegovernmentstheyrepresent.ADBdoesnotguaranteetheaccuracyofthedataincludedinthispublicationandacceptsnoresponsibilityforanyconsequenceoftheiruse.ThementionofspecificcompaniesorproductsofmanufacturersdoesnotimplythattheyareendorsedorrecommendedbyADBinpreferencetoothersofasimilarnaturethatarenotmentioned.Bymakinganydesignationoforreferencetoaparticularterritoryorgeographicarea,orbyusingtheterm“country”inꢀthisdocument,ADBdoesnotintendtomakeanyjudgmentsastothelegalorotherstatusofanyterritoryorarea.ThisworkisavailableundertheCreativeCommonsAttribution3.0IGOlicense(CCBY3.0IGO)/licenses/by/3.0/igo/.Byusingthecontentofthispublication,youagreetobeboundbyꢀtheꢀtermsofthislicense.Forattribution,translations,adaptations,andpermissions,pleasereadtheprovisionsandꢀtermsofuseat/terms-use#openaccess.ThisCClicensedoesnotapplytonon-ADBcopyrightmaterialsinthispublication.Ifthematerialisattributedtoꢀanothersource,pleasecontactthecopyrightownerorpublisherofthatsourceforpermissiontoreproduceit.ADBcannotbeheldliableforanyclaimsthatariseasaresultofyouruseofthematerial.Pleasecontactpubsmarketing@ifyouhavequestionsorcommentswithrespecttocontent,orifyouwishtoꢀobtaincopyrightpermissionforyourintendedusethatdoesnotfallwithintheseterms,orforpermissiontousetheꢀADBlogo.CorrigendatoADBpublicationsmaybefoundat/publications/corrigenda.Note:Inthispublication,“$”referstoUnitedStatesdollars.ADBrecognizes“China”asthePeople'sRepublicofChina.CoverdesignbyJanCarloDelaCruzAllphotosweretakenfromADBPhotoLibrary.CONTENTSTABLES,FIGURES,ANDBOXESFOREWORDbyArmidaSalsiahAlisjahbanaFOREWORDbyBambangSusantono,ADBACKNOWLEDGMENTSvviiiixxABBREVIATIONSxiHIGHLIGHTSxiiDIGITALANDSUSTAINABLETRADEFACILITATION11TradeCostsandTradeFacilitationinAsiaandthePacific:StateofPlay1.1ꢀ|ꢀTradeCosts:SubregionalTrends221.2ꢀ|ꢀImplementationofDigitalandSustainableTradeFacilitationMeasures1.2.1ꢀStatusofImplementation331.2.2ꢀProgressinImplementationfrom2019to20211323ImpactofTradeFacilitationonTradeCosts2.1ꢀ|ꢀModelandData161618192.2ꢀ|ꢀEmpiricalResults2.3ꢀ|ꢀACounterfactualAnalysisConclusionandWayForward222526SUPPLYCHAINSOFCRITICALGOODSAMIDTHECOVID-19PANDEMIC—DISRUPTIONS,RECOVERY,ANDRESILIENCE12IntroductionSupplyChainDisruptions2828342.1ꢀ|ꢀCausesofDisruptions2.2ꢀ|ꢀCausesandResponsesbeforeandafterCOVID-19iiiivꢀContents34SupplyChainResilience373939403.1ꢀ|ꢀConcept3.2ꢀ|ꢀEmergingVulnerabilities3.3ꢀ|ꢀExistingCapabilitiesCaseStudiesonCriticalGoods—SupplyChainIssuesEmergedduringthePandemic4.1ꢀ|ꢀVaccinesandPersonalProtectiveEquipment4.1.1ꢀCOVID-19Vaccines42424246494.1.2ꢀPersonalProtectiveEquipment4.2ꢀ|ꢀFoodSupplyChain5PolicyImplications5959606162625.1ꢀ|ꢀGlobalandRegionalCooperation5.2ꢀ|ꢀOpenTradeandTradeFacilitation5.3ꢀ|ꢀDigitalTechnology5.4ꢀ|ꢀAssistanceTargetedtoVulnerableEconomiesandGroups5.5ꢀ|ꢀRoleofMultilateralInstitutionsTABLES,FIGURES,ANDBOXESDIGITALANDSUSTAINABLETRADEFACILITATIONTABLES12Intra-andExtra-RegionalComprehensiveTradeCosts,2014–201924GroupingofTradeFacilitationMeasuresandCorrespondencewithTradeFacilitationAgreementArticles3456MostandLeastImplementedMeasuresinAsiaandthePacificDataSource,Definition,Treatment,Source,andExpectedSignTradeCostModelResults12171820ChangesinInternationalTradeCostsofAsiaandthePacificasaResultofWorldTradeOrganizationTradeFacilitationAgreementImplementation7ChangesinTradeCostofAsiaandthePacificfromBetterPortConnectivityandTradeFinance21FIGURES1234567OverallImplementationofTradeFacilitationMeasuresin46AsiaandPacificCountries78TradeFacilitationinAsiaandPacificSubregionsandCountrieswithSpecialNeedsImplementationofGroupsofTradeFacilitationMeasures,AsiaandPacificAverageImplementationofDigitalandSustainableDimensionsofTradeFacilitationTradeFacilitationImplementationbySubregion,2019and20211010141523ImplementationofGroupsofTradeFacilitationMeasuresinAsiaandthePacific,2019and2021MovingUptheTradeFacilitationLaddertowardSeamlessInternationalSupplyChainsBOXFrameworkAgreementonFacilitationofCross-BorderPaperlessTradeinAsiaandthePacific:AnUpdate6vviꢀTABLES,FIGURES,ANDBOXESSUPPLYCHAINSOFCRITICALGOODSAMIDTHECOVID-19PANDEMIC—DISRUPTIONS,RECOVERY,ANDRESILIENCETABLES123SelectedSupplyChainDisruptions293852MajorVulnerabilitiesandCapabilitiesinSupplyChainManagementBilateralTradeFlowsofRiceandWheatforSelectImportersFIGURES123456789FreightosBalticGlobalContainerIndex33333435383943434546484950535657GlobalPassengerKilometersandCargoTonneKilometersMajorSourcesofDisruptiononSupplyChainsbeforeandafterCOVID-19BusinessContinuityArrangementsandUseofTechnologyConceptualFrameworkofSupplyChainResilienceProductsAffectedbyCOVID-19-RelatedTradeMeasuresCOVID-19VaccineDosesAdministeredper100PeopleCOVID-19VaccineProductionCapacityTheFlowandMainComponentsoftheVaccineColdChain10PersonalProtectiveEquipmentSupplyChainBottlenecks11GlobalTradeNetworksofSelectPersonalProtectiveEquipmentProducts,201912DomesticMovementRestrictionsandMobilityinAsiaandthePacific13PossibleLockdownImpactonFoodSupplyChain14RiceandWheatPrices15InformalEmployment16EmploymentSharebySectorTABLES,FIGURES,ANDBOXESꢀviiBOXES12345DisastersTriggeredbyNaturalHazardsinAsiaandthePacific2832515460HowIstheCOVID-19PandemicDifferentfromPastCrises?FoodSupplyChainDisruptionsinSelectAsianCountriesComparisonwiththe2007–2008FoodPriceCrisisTradeFacilitationforEssentialGoodsduringtheCOVID-19PandemicFOREWORDByArmidaSalsiahAlisjahbana,ESCAPTheCOVID-19pandemicdramaticallyreducedinternationaltradelastyearandsignificantlydisruptedglobalvaluechains,complicatingprogressinAsiaandthePacifictowardsustainabledevelopment.Whiletradeingoodshassincerecoveredstrongly,supplychainsneedtobemademoreresilient,particularlytoensurethesupplyofcriticalgoods.TheAsia-PacificTradeFacilitationReport2021showsthatdespiteCOVID-19,economiesintheregionhavemanagedtocutredtapetokeeptradeflowing,asevidencedbytheresultsofthe2021GlobalSurveyonDigitalandSustainableTradeFacilitation.Alsoevidentisthatdigitalizationoftradeprocedureshasaccelerated,althoughmuchmoreremainstobedone.Cross-bordertradedigitalizationhasgreatpotentialtohelpcountriesinAsiaandthePacificaccesscriticalgoods,especiallythosemostvulnerabletotradeuncertaintyandcrisis.Thereportindicatesthatfurtheraccelerationofdigitaltradefacilitationimplementationcouldcutaveragetradecostsintheregionbymorethan13percent.ItsuggeststhattheFrameworkAgreementonFacilitationofCross-BorderPaperlessTradeinAsiaandthePacific—aUnitedNationstreatythatenteredintoforceinearly2021—providesadedicated,inclusive,andcapacity-building-focusedintergovernmentalplatformtopursuethisꢀagenda.Thereportalsohighlightstheneedformoreholisticandinclusivetradefacilitationstrategiesintheregiontoensurethatgroupsandsectorswithspecialneedsbenefitfromthetraderecovery.Measuresarespecificallyneededtosupportsmallandmedium-sizedenterprises,women,andtheagriculturalsectortomaketherecoverymoresustainable.Iamconfidentthatthisnewstudywillsupportcountriesindesigningevidence-basedmeasuresandpoliciestomakeinternationaltrademoreefficientandinclusiveandtofostergreaterregionalcooperationforAsiaandthePacific.Withthisourregioncanrecoverstrongerandbetterfromthepandemic.ArmidaSalsiahAlisjahbanaUnder-Secretary-GeneraloftheUnitedNationsandExecutiveSecretaryUnitedNationsEconomicandSocialCommissionforAsiaandthePacificviiiFOREWORDByBambangSusantono,ADBThecoronavirusdisease(COVID-19)pandemichashadsevereimpactsonmultiplesectorsofeconomiesinAsiaandthePacific,asdeclininginternationaltradeflowsandlowerdemandslashedoperationsinports,transporthubs,andlogisticsfacilities.Whileeconomicrecoveryisunderwayin2021,itremainsprecariousanduncertainasnewvariantsofthevirusemerge.Assuch,theCOVID-19pandemichasexposedthevulnerabilitiesofglobalandregionalvaluechainsasithasdisruptedsupply,particularlyforessentialgoodssuchaspersonalprotectiveequipment(PPE),vaccines,andfood.Exportrestrictions,strictbordercontrolsforcustomsclearance,anddrasticpublichealthmeasures,amongotherfactors,explainthedramaticimpact.Thedisruptionsoftheoutbreakhavealsounderscoredtheimportantroletradefacilitationplaysineconomiesandwillplayintherecovery.Thepandemicalsorevealedtheneedfordigital,paperlesstradeprocedurestofacilitatecross-bordermovementofcriticalgoodsduringglobalhealthemergencies,whilemaintainingopentraderegimestomaintainequitableaccesstoessentialgoods.Thisyear’sAsia-PacificTradeFacilitationReporthighlightstheprogressoftradefacilitationreformsduringtheCOVID-19pandemic.Itsspecialchapteronsupplychains—withcasestudiesonfoodsupplies,PPE,andvaccines—discussespandemicmitigationefforts.Asworkersfellillamidthemobilityandsafetyrestrictions,foodsuppliesweredisrupted,especiallyasexportbansemergedinmajorfoodcropproducingcountries.Likewise,forPPE,theearlystagesofthepandemiccurtailedsupplies,particularlywithsupplychainsconcentratedinafewcountriesandleaninventorysystemsasthenorm.Quicklyboostingproductiongloballyproveddifficult.Andforvaccines,withonlyafewcountriesabletomanufacturethem,upscalingproductionforglobalprovisionofthisonegreatdefenseagainstthevirushasbeenchallenging.Thisreportofferspolicysuggestionsonhowtoenhancesupplychainresilience.ThepandemichaspresentedanopportunitytoaccelerateimplementationoftheWorldTradeOrganization'sTradeFacilitationAgreementtoreducetradecostsacrosstheregion,forexample.Anddevelopingeconomiescanbenefitbyimplementingdigitaltradefacilitation.Multilateralagenciescanhelpcoordinatetheseefforts,providefinancingandtechnicalassistancetobuildinstitutionalcapacity,andhelpeconomiesacquiredigitalinfrastructure.Governmentsandtheprivatesector,too,shouldcooperatetobuildbusinesscontinuityplansandenhancesupplychainresilience.Assistance,suchasaccesstosupplychainandtradefinance,shouldbeextendedtosmallproducers.Ihopethisreportwillimproveunderstandingoftheimpactsofthepandemicandhighlighttheimportanceoftradefacilitationreformstopost-COVID-19economicrecoveryandsustainabledevelopment.Greaterregionalcooperationisneededtoharmonizeallthetechnicalandlegalrequirementstoachievemoreefficienttradeprocedures.Weshouldactwithurgency.BambangSusantonoVice-PresidentforKnowledgeManagementandSustainableDevelopmentAsianDevelopmentBankixACKNOWLEDGMENTSThispublicationwasjointlypreparedbytheRegionalCooperationandIntegrationDivision(ERCI)oftheEconomicResearchandRegionalCooperationDepartment(ERCD)oftheAsianDevelopmentBankꢀ(ADB),andtheTrade,InvestmentandInnovationDivision(TIID)oftheUnitedNationsEconomicandSocialꢀCommissionforꢀAsiaandthePacific(ESCAP).Cyn-YoungPark,directorofERCI,ADBandYannDuval,chiefoftheTradePolicyandFacilitationSection,TIID,ESCAPledthepreparationofthispublication.ESCAPprovidedthechapteronDigitalandTradeFacilitation.Thecontributingauthors,ChorthipUtoktham,JiangyuanFu,andSooHyunKim,providedtheanalysisofnewdataforcountriesinAsiaandthePacific,collectedaspartoftheUnitedNationsGlobalSurveyonDigitalandSustainableTradeFacilitation2021.TheauthorsaregratefultoSalehinKhanandCharlesFreifromtheEconomicCommissionforEuropeforsupportingdatacollectioninCentralAsiancountries.RuixinXie,YifanTan,andLinyiChenprovidedresearchꢀassistance.ADBprovidedthethemechapteronSupplyChainsofCriticalGoodsamidtheCOVID-19Pandemic.ContributingauthorsincludeKijinKim,BenjaminEndriga,andSanchitaBasuDas.ResearchsupportwasprovidedbyJeromeAbesamis.KijinKimcoordinatedoverallproductionassistedbyAleliRosario.EricVanZanteditedthemanuscript.JanCarloDelaCruzcreatedthecoverdesign.JonathanYamonganꢀdidthelayoutandtypesetting.ThematerialwasproofreadbyTuesdaySorianowithassistancefromCarolOngchangcoandAleliRosario.SupportforprintingandpublishingthisreportwasprovidedbythePrintingServicesUnitofADB’sOfficeofAdministrativeServicesandbythepublishingteamoftheDepartmentofCommunications.xABBREVIATIONSADBAsianDevelopmentBankAPECASEANCOVID-19ESCAPEUAsia-PacificEconomicCooperationAssociationofSoutheastAsianNationscoronavirusdiseaseEconomicandSocialCommissionforAsiaandthePacificEuropeanUnionLaoPDRPPELaoPeople’sDemocraticRepublicpersonalprotectiveequipmentPeople’sRepublicofChinaPRCSMEsTFAsmallandmedium-sizedenterprisesTradeFacilitationAgreementUnitedNationsUNWHOWTOWorldHealthOrganizationWorldTradeOrganizationxiHIGHLIGHTS•ꢀ|ꢀDigitalandSustainableTradeFacilitationinAsiaandthePacificTradecostsareontherise,especiallywiththerecentsurgeinshippingcosts,butcontinuoustradefacilitationimplementationcouldhelpbendthetrend.Internationalshippingcostsrecentlysurgedtoanall-timepeak,whichmayfurtherdisrupttheinternationalsupplychainwithitsheavyrelianceonseafreighttransport.ThisrecentincreasehasputadditionalpressureonalreadyhightradecostsinAsiaandthePacific.AccordingtotheUnitedNationsEconomicandSocialCommissionforAsiaandthePacific(ESCAP)-WorldBankTradeCostDatabase,tradecostsinAsiaandthePacificarethehighestinSouthAsia.CentralAsiaandthePacifichavemadeprogressinreducingtradecostsoverthepastseveralyearsbuttheyremainhigh.EastAsiahasthelowesttradecostsamongallAsiaandPacificsubregions,followedbytheAssociationofSoutheastAsianNations(ASEAN)subregion.The2021GlobalSurveyonDigitalandSustainableTradeFacilitationshowscontinuedprogressonstreamliningtradeproceduresinAsiaandthePacific.Despitethecoronavirusdisease(COVID-19)pandemicandthesubsequentsupplychaindisruptionsandthesurgeinshippingcosts,thesurveyshowedthattheimplementationof31generalanddigitaltradefacilitationmeasuresroseinaverageacrosstheregionto64.9%in2021,about6percentagepointshigherthanin2019.AustraliaandNewZealand(96.8%)leadimplementationintheregion,followedbyEastAsia(82.5%),SoutheastAsiaandTimor-Leste(74.3%),theRussianFederationandCentralAsia(71.4%),andSouthAsia,Iran,andTurkey(63.1%).ThePacificisconsiderablybehindothersubregions,withanimplementationrateof40.1%.SouthAsia,Iran,andTurkeymademostprogress,withanincreaseofmorethan10percentagepointssince2019.ThePacificalsomadesubstantialprogress,despitethesignificantchallengesandtradedisruptionsduetotheCOVID-19pandemic.BuildingoncontinuouseffortstoimplementTradeFacilitationAgreement(TFA)-relatedmeasures,economiesinAsiaandthePacificwouldbenefitgreatlybygraduallymovingtowardtradedigitalization.The2021surveyshowsthattheWorldTradeOrganization(WTO)TFA-relatedmeasureshavebeenwellimplementedthroughouttheregionbyimprovingtransparency(81.7%),streamliningtheformalities(75.5%),andenhancinginstitutionalarrangementandcooperationmechanisms(68.4%).Ontheotherhand,despitecontinuedimprovementofdigitalinfrastructuretofacilitatetrustedandsecuresharingoftrade-relateddataanddocumentsinelectronicform,implementationofcross-borderpaperlesstraderemainschallengingwitharegionalaverageimplementationratebelow40%.Implementationofbilateralandsubregionalpaperlesstradesystemsremainmostlyatthepilotstage,althoughthepandemiccontributedtotheaccelerationofdigitaltransformation.SimulationresultsshowthatfulldigitaltradefacilitationimplementationbeyondtheWTOTFAcouldcutaveragetradecostsintheregionbymorethan13%.TheFrameworkAgreementonFacilitationofCross-BorderPaperlessTradeinAsiaandthePacific,aUnitedNationstreatywhichenteredintoforceinearly2021,providesadedicated,inclusive,andcapacity-building–focusedintergovernmentalplatformtopursuethisagenda.Moreholisticandinclusivetradefacilitationstrategiesarerequiredtoenhancestrategiestargetinggroupsandsectorswithspecialneeds.Implementationofsustainabletradefacilitationmeasures,especiallythoseaimingforsmallandmedium-sizedenterprises(SMEs)andwomen,facebigchallenges,withaverageimplementationratesof41.7%and33.3%,respectively.Implementationofagriculturaltradefacilitationhashigherimplementationrateat58.5%.MeasuresspecificallysupportingSMEsandwomenshouldbexiiHIGHLIGHTSꢀxiiiadoptedanddevelopedfurther,buildinginclusiveandresilienttradefacilitationmechanisms,tosupporttheachievementoftheSustainableDevelopmentGoals.Thereportalsoshowsahighpositivecorrelationbetweendigitalandsustainabledimensionsoftradefacilitation,indicatingthatsynergiescouldbeachievedbyenhancingbothdimensions.TradefacilitationhasemergedasaneffectivetooltomitigatethedevastatingeffectofCOVID-19ontradebysimplifyinganddigitalizingformalitiesininternationaltrade.Thepandemichighlightedtheroleoftradefacilitationinensuringswiftmovementofmedicalandotheressentialgoods.TheTradeFacilitationinTimesofCrisissectionofthesurveyshowsthatmostgovernmentsintheregionhaveswiftlyimplementedanumberofshort-termcrisismeasuresinresponsetothepandemicandsubsequenttradedisruptions.Theimplementationrateofcrisis-relatedtradefacilitationmeasuresonlystandsat55.7%,onaverage,essentiallybecausemanycountriesstilllacklong-termtradefacilitationplanstoenhancepreparednessforfuturecrises.OverallImplementationofTradeFacilitationMeasuresin46AsiaandPacificCountriesꢅꢀꢀꢁEastAsia(™ꢂ.ꢃꢁ)RussianFederationandCentralAsia(ꢄꢅ.“ꢁ)SouthAsia,Iran,andTurkey(–—.ꢅꢁ)SoutheastAsiaandTimor-Leste(ꢄ“.—ꢁ)AustraliaandNewZealand(˜–.™ꢁ)ꢄꢃꢁꢃꢀꢁꢂꢃꢁꢀꢁPacific(“ꢀ.ꢅꢁ)TransparencyFormalitiesInstitutionalarrangementandcooperationPaperlesstradeCross-borderpaperlesstradeFSM=FederatedStatesofMicronesia,LaoPDR=LaoPeople’sDemocraticRepublic,PRC=People’sRepublicofChina.Note:Amongthe58measuressurveyedacrosstheUnitedNationsregionalcommissions,threemeasuresincludingelectronicsubmissionofseacargomanifests,alignmentofworkingdaysandhourswithneighboringcountriesatbordercrossings,andalignmentofformalitiesandprocedureswithneighboringcountriesatbordercrossingsareexcludedwhencalculatingtheoverallscoreastheyarenotrelevanttoallcountriessurveyed.Fourtransitfacilitationmeasuresarealsoexcludedforthesamereason.Additionally,sustainabletradefacilitationandothertradefacilitationareexcludedasthesenewlyaddedgroupsofmeasureswerenotincludedintheearliersurveys,forcomparison.Source:UNGlobalSurveyonDigitalandSustainableTradeFacilitation..xivꢀHIGHLIGHTS•ꢁ|ꢁThemeChapter:SupplyChainsofCriticalGoodsamidtheCOVID-19PandemicSupplyChainCapabilitiesandVulnerabilityTheCOVID-19pandemiclaidbarethevulnerabilitiesofglobalizationandglobalsupplychains,asconcentratedtradenetworksandlimitinginventorieshelpedweakenthem.HighglobalvaluechainparticipationleftAsiaandthePacificvulnerabletorestrictivetrademeasures.Ashortageoffinancingworsenedresourceconstraints.Andeventhoughtradepolicyisacrucialanchorforthesmoothfunctioningofinternationalproductionnetworks,manyeconomiesimposedtrade-restrictingpoliciesonmedicalandagriculturegoods.Addressingthesevulnerabilitiesrequiredstrengtheningthecapabilitiesofsupplychainsinvariousareas.Buildingonpastlessons,existingnationalandregionalmechanismsandinitiativeshelpedraisecapacityforstrengtheningcollaborationandmakingsupplychainsmoreefficient.Nonetheless,newmeasureswereurgentlyneededevenasexistingonesadjustedtotheunprecedentedcrisis.VaccinesandPersonalProtectiveEquipmentLimitedvaccinesupply,logisticschallenges,lackoffundingandstaffresourcesforvaccination,andvaccinehesitancyhavehamperedeffortstoquicklyimmunizeameaningfulshareofpopulations.Thegeographicconcentrationofmajormanufacturersofvaccinesandpersonalprotectiveequipment(PPE)leavessupplyexposedtolocalizedshocksandchangesinnationalsecuritylawsandtradepolicies.Attheonsetofthepandemic,theworldencounteredcriticalshortagesofPPEandotheressentialmedicaldevices,aggravatedbyexportbansonmedicalsuppliesandPPEinsomecasestocurblocalshortages.SecuringsufficientsuppliesofvaccinesandPPEremainsanimportantchallengeinmanypartsoftheworldinvaccinerolloutsandinsustainingessentialhealthservices.Developingeconomiesneedtoaddressseverallogisticsissuestosuccessfullyimmunizetheirpopulations.Lowairtransportcapacityshouldbeaddressedasclosedairportsandlackofflightsduringthepandemichavecreatedbottlenecks.Shipmentsmustremainsecurefromtamperingandtheftatallpointsinthesupplychainofmedicalgoods.Well-coordinatedandtimelyregulatoryapprovals,inspection,andclearancebycustomsandhealthauthoritiesareessential.Andadequate,temperature-controlledsupplychainsneedtobesecured.Yet,temperature-controlledsupplychainsarelimitedindevelopingeconomies,makingithardtoaccommodatethevarioustemperaturerequirementsofthedifferentvaccines.FoodSupplyChainsDuringCOVID-19,foodsupplychainscameunderpressureamiddomesticandinternationaldisruptions.Domestically,travelrestrictionspreventedlocalandmigrantworkersfrommovingtofarms,processing,andHIGHLIGHTSꢀxvpackagingfacilities,manyofwhichwereclosedduetoquarantinerequirementsandsickworkers.Accesstofarminputsbecamechallenging.Restrictionsinurbantransportationandlogisticsservicesimpairedmovementofgoods,causinglarge-scalewastage,particularlyforhigh-valueperishablefarmproducts.Demandshockswerealsofeltasmanyfarmerswereleftwithnobuyersasrestaurants,hotels,andschoolsꢀclosed.Cross-bordertransportrestrictionsdisruptedtheglobalsupplychain.Maritimetransportwasparticularlyhamperedbydisruptioninportfacilities,whichbecamecongestedamidalackofworkersandtransporttoclearcargo.Compulsoryh