语言学4gram教学讲解教学课件

Syntaxisthestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaysdifferentconstituentsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orthestudyoftheinterrelationshipsbetweenelementsinsentencestructures.1Syntacticrelationscanbeanalysedintothreekinds:relationsofpositionrelationsofsubstitutabilityrelationsofco-occurrence1.Syntacticrelations

syntacticrelations21.1Relationsof

PositionForlanguagetofulfillitscommunicativefunction,itmusthaveawaytomarkthegrammaticalrolesofthevariousphrasesthatcanoccurinaclause.

Theboykickedtheball

NP1NP2Subject Object3Positionalrelation,orWORDORDER,referstothesequentialarrangementofwordsinalanguage.Ifthewordsinasentencefailtooccurinafixedorderrequiredbytheconventionofalanguage,onetendstoproduceanutteranceeitherungrammaticalornonsensicalatall.Forexample,4Theboykickedtheball*Boytheballkickedthe*TheballkickedtheboyTheteachersawthestudentsThestudentssawtheteacher5PositionalrelationsareamanifestationofoneaspectofSyntagmaticRelationsobservedbyF.deSaussure.TheyarealsocalledHorizontalRelationsorsimplyChainRelations.6Wordorderisamongthethreebasicways(wordorder,geneticandarealclassifications)toclassifylanguagesintheworld:SVO,VSO,SOV,OVS,OSV,andVOS.EnglishbelongstoSVOtype,thoughthisdoesnotmeanthatSVOistheonlypossiblewordorder.71.2RelationofSubstitutability

TheRelationofSubstitutabilityreferstoclassesorsetsofwordssubstitutableforeachothergrammaticallyinsentenceswiththesamestructure.The

______smiles.

man boy girl8Italsoreferstogroupsofmorethanonewordwhichmaybejointlysubstitutablegrammaticallyforasinglewordofaparticularset.

strongmanThe tallestboy smiles. prettygirl yesterday.Hewentthere lastweek. thedaybefore.9ThisisalsocalledAssociativeRelationsbySaussure,andParadigmaticRelationsbyHjemslev.Tomakeitmoreunderstandable,theyarecalledVerticalRelationsorChoiceRelations.101.3RelationofCo-occurrence

Itmeansthatwordsofdifferentsetsofclausesmaypermit,orrequire,theoccurrenceofawordofanothersetorclasstoformasentenceoraparticularpartofasentence.Forinstance,anominalphrasecanbeprecededbyadeterminerandadjective(s)andfollowedbyaverbalphrase.11Relationsofco-occurrencepartlybelongtosyntagmaticrelations,partlytoparadigmaticrelations.122.Grammaticalconstructionanditsconstituents

2.1GrammaticalConstruction

Anysyntacticstringofwordsrangingfromsentencesoverphrasalstructurestocertaincomplexlexemes.anappleateanappleMaryateanapple132.2ConstituentsandPhraseStructureConstituentisapartofalargerlinguisticunit.Severalconstituentstogetherformaconstruction:thegirl(NP)atetheapple(VP)thegirlatetheapple(S)14ImmediateConstituentAnalysis

(ICAnalysis)Thegirlatetheapple15PhraseStructure

TreediagramSNPVPDetNVNPDetNThegirlatetheapple16Word-levelPhrasalN=nounA=adjectiveV=verbP=prepositionDet=determinerAdv=adverbConj=conjunctionNP=nounphraseAP=adjectivephraseVP=verbphrasePP=prepositionphraseS=sentenceorclause17BracketingBracketingisnotascommoninuse,butitisaneconomicnotationinrepresentingtheconstituent/phrasestructureofagrammaticalunit.(((The)(girl))

((ate)

((the)(apple))))[S[NP[DetThe][Ngirl]][VP[Vate][NP[Detthe][Napple]]]]182.3EndocentricandExocentricConstructionsEndocentricconstructionisonewhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalenttothatofoneormoreofitsconstituents,i.e.,awordoragroupofwords,whichservesasadefinablecentreorhead.Usuallynounphrases,verbphrasesandadjectivephrasesbelongtoendocentrictypesbecausetheconstituentitemsaresubordinatetotheHead.

1920Exocentricconstructionreferstoagroupofsyntacticallyrelatedwordswherenoneofthewordsisfunctionallyequivalenttothegroupasawhole,thatis,thereisnodefinable“Centre”or“Head”insidethegroup,usuallyincludingthebasicsentence,theprepositionalphrase,thepredicate(verb+object)construction,andtheconnective(be+complement)construction.21Theboy

smiled.(Neitherconstituentcansubstituteforthesentencestructureasawhole.)Hehid

behind

thedoor.(Neitherconstituentcanfunctionasanadverbial.)He

kicked

theball.(Neitherconstituentstandsfortheverb-objectsequence.)John

seemed

angry.(Afterdivision,theconnectiveconstructionnolongerexists.)222.4CoordinationandSubordinationEndocentricconstructionsfallintotwomaintypes,dependingontherelationbetweenconstituents:Coordination23CoordinationCoordinationisacommonsyntacticpatterninEnglishandotherlanguagesformedbygroupingtogethertwoormorecategoriesofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasand,butandor.Thesetwoormorewordsorphrasesorclauseshaveequivalentsyntacticstatus,eachoftheseparateconstituentscanstandfortheoriginalconstructionfunctionally.24CoordinationofNPs:[NPthelady]or[NPthetiger]CoordinationofVPs:[VPgotothelibrary]and[VPreadabook]CoordinationofPPs:

[PPdownthestairs]and[PPoutthedoor]CoordinationofAPs:

[APquiteexpensive]and[APverybeautiful]CoordinationofSs:[SJohnlovesMary]and[SMarylovesJohntoo].25SubordinationSubordinationreferstotheprocessorresultoflinkinglinguisticunitssothattheyhavedifferentsyntacticstatus,onebeingdependentupontheother,andusuallyaconstituentoftheother.Thesubordinateconstituentsarewordswhichmodifythehead.Consequently,theycanbecalledmodifiers.26two

dogs

Head(Mybrother)

candrink(wine).

HeadSwimminginthelake

(isfun).

Head(Thepepperwas)hotbeyondendurance.

Head27SubordinateclausesClausescanbeusedassubordinateconstituents.Therearethreebasictypesofsubordinateclauses:complementclausesadjunct(oradverbial)clausesrelativeclauses28Johnbelieves[thattheairplanewasinventedbyanIrishman].

(complementclause)Elizabethopenedherpresents[beforeJohnfinishedhisdinner].

(adverbialclause)Thewoman[thatIlove]ismovingtothesouth.

(relativeclause)

subordinateclause293.SyntacticFunction

Thesyntacticfunctionshowstherelationshipbetweenalinguisticformandotherpartsofthelinguisticpatterninwhichitisused.Namesoffunctionsareexpressedintermsofsubjects,objects,predicators,modifiers,complements,etc.303.1Subject

Insomelanguages,subjectreferstooneofthenounsinthenominativecase.ThetypicalexamplecanbefoundinLatin,wheresubjectisalwaysinnominativecase,suchaspaterandfiliusinthefollowingexamples.paterfiliumamat

(thefatherlovestheson)patrumfiliusamat(thesonlovesthefather)31InEnglish,thesubjectofasentenceisoftensaidtobetheagent,orthedoeroftheaction,whiletheobjectisthepersonorthingacteduponbytheagent.Thisdefinitionseemstoworkforthesesentences:Mary

slappedJohn.

■

Adog

bitBill.32butisclearlywronginthefollowingexamples:John

wasbittenbyadog.

John

underwentmajorheartsurgery.

Inordertoaccountforthecaseofsubjectinpassivevoice,wehavetwootherterms“grammaticalsubject”(John)and“logicalsubject”(adog).33Anothertraditionaldefinitionofthesubjectis“whatthesentenceisabout”(i.e.,topic).Again,thisseemstoworkformanysentences,suchasBillisaverycraftyfellow.

butfailsinothers,suchas(Jackisprettyreliable,but)BillIdon’ttrust.AsforBill,Iwouldn’ttakehispromisesveryseriously.

34Allthreesentencesseemtobe“about”Bill;thuswecouldsaythatBillisthetopicofallthreesentences.Theabovesentencesmakeitclearthatthetopicisnotalwaysthegrammaticalsubject.Whatcharacteristicsdosubjectshave?subject35WordorderSubjectordinarilyprecedestheverbinthestatement:Sallycollectsstamps.*CollectsSallystamps.36Pro-formsThefirstandthirdpersonpronounsinEnglishappearinaspecialformwhenthepronounisasubject,whichisnotusedwhenthepronounoccursinotherpositions:Helovesme.Ilovehim.Wethrewstonesatthem.Theythrewstonesatus.37AgreementwiththeverbInthesimplepresenttense,an-sisaddedtotheverbwhenathirdpersonsubjectissingular,butthenumberandpersonoftheobjectoranyotherelementinthesentencehavenoeffectatallontheformoftheverb:Sheangershim.Theyangerhim.

Sheangersthem.

38ContentquestionsIfthesubjectisreplacedbyaquestionword(whoorwhat),therestofthesentenceremainsunchanged,asinJohnstoletheQueen’spicturefromtheBritishCouncil.WhostoletheQueen’spicturefromtheBritishcouncil?39WhatwouldJohnsteal,ifhehadthechance?WhatdidJohnstealfromtheBritishCouncil?WheredidJohnstealtheQueen’spicturefrom?Whenanyotherelementofthesentenceisreplacedbyaquestionword,anauxiliaryverbmustappearbeforethesubject.40TagquestionAtagquestionisusedtoseekconfirmationofastatement.Italwayscontainsapronounwhichrefersbacktothesubject,andnevertoanyotherelementinthesentence.JohnlovesMary,doesn’the?MarylovesJohn,doesn’tshe?*JohnlovesMary,doesn’tshe?413.2Predicate

Predicatereferstoamajorconstituentofsentencestructureinabinaryanalysisinwhichallobligatoryconstituentsotherthanthesubjectwereconsideredtogether.Itusuallyexpressesactions,processes,andstatesthatrefertothesubject.Theboy

isrunning.

(process)Peter

broketheglass.(action)Jane

mustbemad!

(state)Thewordpredicatorissuggestedforverborverbsincludedinapredicate.423.3Object

Objectisalsoatermhardtodefine.Since,traditionally,subjectcanbedefinedasthedoeroftheaction,objectmayrefertothe“receiver”or“goal”ofanaction,anditisfurtherclassifiedintoDirectObjectandIndirectObject.Motherbought

adoll.Mothergave

mysister

adoll.

IO

DO

43Insomeinflectinglanguages,objectismarkedbycaselabels:theaccusativecasefordirectobject,andthedativecaseforindirectobject.InEnglish,“object”isrecognizedbytracingitsrelationtowordorder(aftertheverbandpreposition)andbyinflections(ofpro­nouns).Mothergave

adolltomysister.Johnkicked

me.44Modernlinguistssuggestthatobjectreferstosuchanitemthatitcanbecomesubjectinapassivetransformation.Johnbroke

theglass.

Theglass

wasbrokenbyJohn.Petersaw

Jane.

Jane

wasseenbyPeter.object45Althoughtherearenominalphrasesinthefollowing,theyarebynomeansobjectsbecausetheycannotbetransformedintopassivevoice.Hedied

lastweek.Thematchlasted

threehours.HechangedtrainsatManchester.(*Trains

werechangedbyhimatManchester.)464.Category

Thetermcategoryreferstothedefiningpropertiesofthesegeneralunits:Categoriesofthenoun:number,gender,caseandcountability

Categoriesoftheverb:tense,aspect,voice474.1NumberNumberisagrammaticalcategoryusedfortheanalysisofwordclassesdisplayingsuchcontrastsassingular,dual,plural,etc.InEnglish,numberismainlyobservedinnouns,andthereareonlytwoforms:singularandplural,suchasdog:dogs.

Numberisalsoreflectedintheinflectionsofpronounsandverbs,suchasHelaughs:Theylaugh,thisman:thesemen.48Inotherlanguages,forexample,French,themanifestationofnumbercanalsobefoundinadjectivesandarticles.lechevalroyal(theroyalhorse)leschevauxroyaux(theroyalhorses)494.2GenderSuchcontrastsas“masculine:feminine:neuter”,“animate:inanimate”,etc.fortheanalysisofwordclasses.Thoughthereisacorrelationbetweennaturalgenderandgrammaticalgender,theassignmentmayseemquitearbitraryinmanycases.Forinstance,inLatin,

ignis‘fire’ismasculine,whileflamma

‘flame’isfeminine.50Englishgendercontrastcanonlybeobservedinpronounsandasmallnumberofnouns,and,theyaremainlyofthenaturalgendertype.he:she:itprince:princessauthor:authoress51InFrench,genderismanifestedalsobothinadjectivesandarticles.beaucadeau(finegift)bellemaison(finehouse)Lecadeauestbeau.(Thegiftisgood.)Lamaisonestbelle.(Thehouseisbeautiful.)52Sometimesgenderchangesthelexicalmeaningaswell,forexample,inFrench:lepoele(thestove)lapoele(thefryingpan)lependule(thependulum)lapendule(theclock)534.3Case

Thecasecategoryisusedintheanalysisofwordclassestoidentifythesyntacticrelationshipbetweenwordsinasentence.InLatingrammar,casesarebasedonvariationsinthemorphologicalformsoftheword,andaregiventheterms“accusative”,“nominative”,“dative”,etc.TherearefivecasesinancientGreekandeightinSanskrit.Finnishhasasmanyasfifteenformallydistinctcasesinnouns,eachwithitsownsyntacticfunction.54InEnglish,caseisaspecialformofthenounwhichfrequentlycorrespondstoacombinationofprepositionandnoun,anditisrealizedinthreechannels:inflectionfollowingaprepositionwordorderasmanifestedinteacher:teacher’swith:toamanJohnkickedPeter:PeterkickedJohn554.4AgreementAgreement(orconcord)maybedefinedastherequirementthattheformsoftwoormorewordsofspecificwordclassesthatstandinspecificsyntacticrelationshipwithoneanothershallalso,becharacterizedbythesameparadigmaticallymarkedcategory(orcategories).56Thissyntacticrelationshipmaybeanaphoric,aswhenapronounagreeswithitsantecedent,Whoseis

thispen?--Oh,

it’s

theoneIlost.oritmayinvolvearelationbetweenaheadanditsdependent,aswhenaverbagreeswithitssubjectandobject:Each

person

mayhaveonecoin.

57Agreementofnumberbetweennounsandverbs:Thismanruns.

Thebirdflies.

Thesemenrun.

Thesebirdsfly.58SentenceClausePhraseWord5.Phrase,ClauseandSentence

59thethreetallestgirls(nominalphrase)hasbeendoing

(verbalphrase)extremelydifficult (adjectivalphrase)tothedoor(prepositionalphrase)veryfast

(adverbialphrase)phrase60ClauseFiniteNon-finiteInfinitiveParticipialGerundialSubjectObjectAdverbialRelativeAppositionalComplement61Thebestthingwouldbe

toleaveearly.It’sgreat

foramantobefree.Havingfinishedtheirtask,theycametohelpus.Johnbeingaway,Billhadtodothework.Filledwithshame,heleftthehouse.Alloursavingsgone,westartedlookingforjobs.It’snouse

cryingoverspiltmilk.Doyoumind

myopeningthewindow?62Sentence:traditionalapproach simple

Sentence complex non-simple compound63Sentence:functionalapproach Yes/noInterrogativeIndicativewh-DeclarativeSentenceJussiveImperativeOptative64Basicsentencetypes:BolingerMotherfell.(Nominal+intransitiveverbal)Motherisyoung.(Nominal+copula+complement)MotherlovesDad.(Nominal+transitiveverbal+nominal).MotherfedDadbreakfast.(Nominal+transitiveverbal+nominal+nominal)Thereistime.(There+existential+nominal)

65Basicsentencetypes:QuirkSVC

Maryiskind. anurse.SVA

Maryishere. inthehouse.SV

Thechildislaughing.SVO

Somebodycaughttheball.SVOC

Wehaveprovedhimwrong.

afool.SVOA

Iputtheplateonthetable.SVOO

Shegivesmeexpensivepresents.

666.Recursiveness

Recursivenessmainlymeansthataphrasalconstituentcanbeembeddedwithinanotherconstituenthavingthesamecategory,butithasbecomeanumbrellatermsuchimportantlinguisticphenomenaascoordinationandsubordination,conjoiningandembedding,hypotacticandparatactic.Allthesearemeanstoextendsentences.Howlongcanasentencebe?67Theoretically,thereisnolimittotheembeddingofonerelativeclauseintoanotherrelativeclause,solongasitdoesnotbecomeanobstacletosuccessfulcommunication.Thesameholdstruefornominalclausesandadverbialclauses.Imetamanwhohadasonwhosewifesoldcookiesthatshehadbakedinherkitchenthatwasfullyequippedwithelectricalappliancesthatwerenew…68John’ssisterJohn’ssister’shusbandJohn’ssister’shusband’suncleJohn’ssister’shusband’suncle’sdaughter,etc.thathouseinBeijingthegardenofthathouseinBeijingthetreeinthegardenofthathouseinBeijingabirdonthetreeinthegardenofthathouseinBeijing696.1ConjoiningConjoining:coordination.Conjunctions:and,but,andor.Johnboughtahat

and

hiswifeboughtahandbag.Givemeliber