中英禁忌语比较

PAGE21中英禁忌语比较摘要：现在，中英两国人民之间的相互交流变得越来越频繁。对中英两国人民来说在跨文化交际中不仅要知道讲什么话是首选，而且了解哪些话是被禁忌的是十分重要的。禁忌语是中英文化中一个很普通的语言现象。这篇文章介绍了禁忌语的起源和禁忌语的定义，也从文化差异这个角度比较了中英禁忌语的不同点和相同点。主要的目的使人们对语言禁忌有更好的了解，并且在交流中能够建立更高的警觉性避免使用禁忌语，然后提高他们的跨文化交际能力。关键词：禁忌语；定义；相似处；不同点IntroductionNowadays,taboohasbecomeacommonlyusedwordinanthropologyandstudiesofreligionandfolkcustom.Furthermore,ithasbeenafairlyimportantfieldofthesebranchesoflearning.Ineverynationandculturetherearephenomenaofusingtabooindailylife.AbouttheoriginofTaboo,therearetwoviewpointsnow.OneviewpointisthatthetermTabooisoriginatedfromPolynesian(insouthPacific)Tongalanguage.In1777,CaptainJamesCookarrivedinsouthPacificPolynesianTonga.InTonga,hefoundastrangebehaviorintheirdailylife.Thereweremanythingsforbiddentodo,manyfoodsforbiddentoeat,andsomewordsnotallowedtosay.ThelocallanguageofTongacalledthisphenomenonTabooorTabu.ThenCookborrowedthewordintoEnglish.ThewordinEnglishreferstoactsthatareforbiddenortobeavoided.Whenanactistaboo,referencetothisactmayalsobecometaboo.Thatis,firstyouareforbiddentodosomething,andthenyouareforbiddentotalkaboutit.TheotherviewpointisthatthetermTabooisoriginatedfromnativelanguageinthemiddlePacificIslands.Afterreferringtoinformationofdifferentsources,Ifindmostscholarsthinkthesourceoftheword“Taboo”isTonganword,whichisintroducedbyCaptainJamesCookfromPolynesiatoEuropein1777.AndinbooktheCambridgeEncyclopediaofLanguage,whenitdefines“Taboo”,itpoint1.DefinitionofTaboo1.1DefinitionofTabooSigmundFreud,thefounderofpsychoanalyticschool,putforwardinterestinganddetaileddiscussionsontaboosinhisclassicalworkTotemandTaboo.Hepointedoutthattabooscontainedtwooppositemeanings:ononehand,itwaslofty,sacred;ontheotherhand,itwasmysterious,dangerous,prohibitiveandunclean.OnthebasisofFreud’sviews,theOxfordAdvancedLearner’sEnglish-Chinesedictionarydefinestheword“Taboo”asfollows:“a)banorprohibitiononsomethingthatisregardedforreligiousorotherreasonsasnottobedone,touched,used,spokenofetc.b)generalagreementnottodiscussortodosomething.”(OxfordAdvancedLearner’sEnglish-Chinesedictionary,2000)WecanalsofindthedefinitionintheCambridgeEncyclopediaofLanguage:“TaboohasbeenborrowedfromTongan,whereitmeans‘holy’or‘untouchable’.Taboosexistinallknowncultures,referringtocertainacts,objects,orrelationshipswhichsocietywishestoavoid-andthusthelanguageusedtotalkaboutthem.Verbaltaboosaregenerallyrelatedtosex,thesupernatural,excretion,anddeath,butquiteoftentheyextendtootheraspectsofdomesticandsociallife.”(David,1997)Inshort,fromthesedefinitionsoftaboo,wecanknowallthetaboosarelikelytobeconsideredsacred,dangerous,inviolableorobscenebycertainpeople.Itisusuallynotspokendirectly.1.2DifferencesbetweenTabooandEuphemismManypeoplethinkthattabooistoadegreesimilartoeuphemism.Inourdailylife,weoftenmeetcertainthingswecannotsaydirectly,soweuselanguagewhichcanhelpusavoidsayingcertainthingsaswellastoexpressthem.Certainthingsarenotsaid,notbecausethere’snowaytoexpressthem,butbecausepeopledonotwanttotalkaboutthosethings;orifthosethingsaretobetalkedabout,theyaretalkedaboutinveryroundaboutways.Inthefirstcasewehaveinstanceoflinguistictaboo;inthesecondcasewehavetheemploymentofeuphemismsoastoavoidmentioningcertainthingsdirectly.Tabooistheprohibitionoravoidanceinanysocietyofbehaviorbelievedtobeharmfultoitsmembersinthatitwouldcausethemanxiety,embarrassment,orshame.Euphemismismoreobviousthantaboowordsandexpressionsinoursociety.Euphemisticwordsandexpressionsallowustotalkaboutunpleasantthingsand“neutralize”theunpleasantness.Theyalsoallowustogivelabelstounpleasanttasksandjobsinanattempttomakethemsoundalmostattractive.Thesetwolinguisticarehavesomesimilar,however,eachgroupisdifferentfromeachotherinhowitconstrainslinguisticbehaviorinoneway.Tabooiscertainthingsthatwecannotsay,andeuphemismisalinguisticwesaycertainthingsbybetterway,andthenmakepeoplemorecomfortable.Tabooandeuphemismaffectusinallaspectsoflife.Whenwespeak,wemustconstantlymakechoicesofmanydifferentkinds:whatwewanttosay,howwesayit,andthespecificsentencepatterns,wordsandexpressionsthatbestunitethe“what’s”withthe“how’s”.Weshouldknowsomewordsweneverandhardlyusewhenwearetalkingwithothers.Ifweusethesewords,itmaycausesometroublesincommunication.2.SimilartaboosinEnglishandChineseWiththedevelopmentofscienceandtechnology,theworldbecomessmallerandsmaller;theincreasingcommunicationbetweendifferentcountriesandnationsmakethemutualunderstandingmoreandmoreimportant.Thus,differentsocialvaluesandlifecustomsblendaswellascollidewithoneanother.Peopleinoneculturemaynotuseeuphemismwhenreferringtoasocialphenomenonwhileinanothercultureeuphemismisthepreferredwaypeopleaddressit.Sotheformermayfindadifferentequivalentinthelatter’slanguage.Forinstance,English-speakingpeopleusuallysubstitute“underachieve”for“slowstudent”andnowadaysChinesepeoplealsotendtousetheeuphemisticphrase“后进生”insteadof“差生”.Inpresentsociety,tabooplaysaconsiderablyimportantpartinthedevelopmentofcross-culturalcommunicationinEnglishandChinese.AccordingtoInternationalEnglishUsage,therearemainlysixtabooaspectsasfollows,religionandgod,sex,secretionsandexcretions,diseaseanddeath,society,andprivacyregardingage,weight,incomeetc.IhavereadsomebookaboutChineseculture.Then,IcompareEnglishtabooswithChinesetaboos.ChinesetaboosaresimilartoEnglishtaboos.Chinesetaboosalsocontainmainlysixaspects.2.1ReligionandGodInEnglish-speakingcountries,mostpeoplebelieveChristianity,theyhaveastrongsenseofreligion,andpeoplearestrictlyprohibitedfrommentioningGod’sname.InthethirdcommandmentofTenCommandments,itsays,”Thoushaltnotspeakmynameinvain”.Onceyoubreaktherule,youwillbecriticizedorevenbealienatedbyothermembers.JesusChristwasaJewwholivedinPalestine2000yearsagoandisacceptedbyChristiansastheSonofGod.Sointhesecountries,thereligioustermslikeGod,devil,Christ,damn,JesusChristetc,areonlyallowedtobementionedinserioustalk.IfsomeonementionsJesusChristincasualtalkorinajoke,hewillbeconsideredimpolite.However,whenEnglishpeoplescoldsomeone,theywillusethesewords:“ForChrist'ssake!”,“Goddamned!”,“Hell!”,“Oh,damnit!”InChinese,itissimilarforpeopletoavoidcallingGod’sname.MostChinesepeoplebelieveBuddhism,theyalsodonotmentionGod’sname.TheyoftencallGodsuchas“玉皇大帝”，“大圣”，“佛主”etc.whentheyswears,theywillusesky,suchas“上苍作证”,“对天发誓”，“上天为证”。Sometimestheyuse爷，like“老天爷”,“阎王爷”,“土地爷”andsoon.Swearwordsaretabooaswell.ThisisgenerallytrueofbothEnglishandChinese,althoughswearwordsarenolongersooffensiveasbefore.Someoftheswearwordsmentionedabovearenowfrequentlyheardinyoungpeople’sconversation.Butfornon-nativespeakers,itisbettertobecautiousinusingprofanity.ComparingEnglishtabooswithChineseones,wecanfindthatthoughthesetwocountrieshavedifferentreligion,theyhavesomesimilartabooinreligion.2.2SexThoughmodernpeoplearemoreandmoreopenthanbeforeinsex,whenmentioningsexualthings,peoplestillfeelembarrassed.Generallyspeaking,westernpeopleareopeninsexualthings,forsexeducationhasalonghistoryinthewest.However,theyarealsocautiouswhentalkingaboutitinpublic,especiallyinmixedgroupswithwomenandmen.Wordsaboutsexarenotallowedtotalkfreely.Whentalkingaboutit,peopleprefertouseotherwordstoreplaceit.Mostpeoplefeelembarrassedtosaysuchwordse.g.“piss”,“fuck”,“tits”,“cock”etc.Commonly,thesewordsarecalledfour-letterword.Somewordsareoriginallynottaboowords,buttheylosttheirfrequencyofbeingused,becausetheyhavesometimetodowithsexorsexorgansintheprocessoflexicalevolution.Thesewordslike“gay”,“cock”,“ass”,“rooster”.Indailylife,ifyouwanttosaysexualthing,youcannotuse“copulate”,and“sexualintercourse”doesnotappearinconversationeither.Nowadays,womanpregnantisnotmentioneddirectly.Peopleuseeuphemismtomentionit.Theywilluse--sheis“expecting”;sheis“inadelicatecondition”;sheis“well-along”;sheisabouttohavea“blessedevent”;orsheisabouttobe“inafamilyway”.Besides,ifawomanpregnantunmarried,peoplewillsaysheis“introuble”.InChineseculture,peoplepaymoreattentiontosexandsexorgans.Inmosttimes,peopledonotmentionsexwords.Ifitmustbementioned,peoplewilluseotherwords.Theytendtouse“下面”，“那里”，“阴部”etc.Chinesepeopleneversaysexualthingsdirectlyanytimeanyplace.Thesethingsareconsideredembarrassing;itisnotallowedtosaytheminpublic.Whenmentioningit,theytendtousephraseslike“男女关系”,“洞房”,“房事”,“过夫妻生活”etc.Similarly,ChinesepeopledonotsaypregnancydirectlylikeEnglishpeople.Chinesepeoplecallit“有了”，“有喜了”，“有孩子了”，“肚子大了”，“身子笨了”，“身子不方便了”etc.Inshort,wecandrawtheconclusionthatChineseandEnglishhavemanysimilartaboosonsex.Soweshouldnotspeakofitatrandom,insteadweshoulduseitseriously.Otherwise,itwillcausesomeembarrassments.2.3SecretionsandExcretionsSecretionsandexcretionsaresubstancesoftaboos.Perhapsthisisbecauseitisanineluctablesignofournature.Nowonderthatifsomeonementionsthesewordsorphrasesinpublic,itmaycauseconsiderableembarrassment,evenmisunderstandingincross-culturalcommunication.Peopledonotliketomentionsecretionsandexcretionsbecausetheythinktheyaredirty.Nomatterinancientormoderntime,peoplehatedirtandemphasizepersonalcleanliness.Wastedisposalisextremelyprimitive.Sopeoplehavetouseanotherwaytodressthesewordsandphraseuptomakethemsoundbetter.InEnglish,“problemdays”,“badtime”,“redlight”,“holyweek”etc.arejustafewwordsoftypicalexamples.InChinese,therearealsomanyexpressions,suchas“例假”，“好朋友”，“大姨妈”，“不方便”。Anotherimportantaspectofsecretionsandexcretionsisthedefinitionoftoilet.Inmoderntimes,therearemanybeautifiednamesoftoilet,suchas“washroom”,“theJohn”,“powderroom”,“publiccomfortstation”,‘restroom”etc.However,peoplestilldonotliketosaythesewordsandphrasesevenwhentheyareutteredineuphemism.Theywouldliketosay“spendapenny”,whichmeansthatitischargedtogotothetoilet.“Toshakehandswithanoldfriend”impliesthatonehastodothingsthatarefrequentlydone.Thereareothersimilarexpressionsaswell,like“answerthecallofnature”,or“tohaveaBM(bowelmovement)”.Whatismoreinterestingisthatindifferentsituationsitwillhavedifferentexpressions.Inclimbing,awomanwantstogotoilet,shemaysay“Imustgoandpickflowers.”Inaparty,peoplewillsay“MayIwashmyhands?”ormoreinteresting,thatissaying,“Imustseeamanaboutadog.”,because“doghouse”means“toilet”.InChinese,peopleusuallycalltoilet“茅厕”，“厕所”，“卫生间”or“洗手间”。TheseexpressionsaresimilartothoseinEnglish.FromtheexamplesonsecretionsandexcretionsbothinChineseandEnglish,wecanknowinChineseandEnglishhavesimilartaboophenomenainsecretionsandexcretions.Secretionsandexcretionsareanecessarypartofhumanphysicalfunction.Weshoulddealwiththeminrightattitudeandinrightway.2.4DiseaseandDeathDiseaseanddeath,andallthatrelatedtoitaresteepedintaboos.Itisknowntoall,healthisveryimportantinourlife.Peopleareafraidoffacingdiseaseanddeath.Soinconversations,peoplearenotallowedtosaysicknessdirectly.Insteadtheypreferusingotherwords.Therefore,weoftenhearpeoplesay,“Iamnotfeelingwell.”Andforphysicaldisabilities,peopleuse“specialboy”or“specialgirl”instead.Ifsomeoneisblind,youcannevercallhimorher“blindpeople”forthatisatabooedverbalutterance.SimilarsituationcanbeseeninChinese.Chinesepeoplearealsoafraidoftalkingaboutdiseasetoo.Whenapersonissick,hewouldliketosay“我身体有点不舒服。”or“我最近感觉不是很好。”Whentalkingaboutdisabledpeople,likecrippledpeople,theywillsayhislegisinconvenient.Whentalkingaboutablindperson,theywillsay,“hiseyeshavesomeproblems”,or“hisvisionisnotgood”.Itmaybelogicaltoattributetaboosconcerningthedeadtoanaturalhumanaversiontotheprocessesofbodilydecay,theodorofputrefyingfleshandthefearofdisease.Nowonderdeathisthetabootopicinanytimeandinanyplace.Throughoutthehistory,deathisconsideredserioustopic.Foranyperson,deathisasadthing;usuallypeopleareunwillingtofaceit.Whensomeonedies,fortheword‘death’istaboo,peopleneversaysheorhehasdied.Theywouldliketosay,“Hehaspassedaway.”or“Heisgone.”;“

He

went

to

his

rewards.”;“

He

fell

asleep.”or

“He

breathed

his

last.”

Ifthismanisasolider,peoplewouldnotsay,“Heiskilled.”For‘kill’isataboo.Instead,theysay,“He

fell

in

battle.”Ifsomeoneisdrowned,theywouldliketosay,“The

sailor

was

lost

at

set.”InChinesetherearemoreonehundredexpressionsaboutdeath.Intheseexpressionstherearesomerules,especiallyinancienttime.Peoplecannotusethesewordsatrandom.Whentheemperordies,peoplesay“驾崩”;whentheofficialsdie,peoplesay“薨”;ifitreferstothedeathofarespectableperson,wemaysay“仙逝”;apersondiesincampaigns,wecallit“牺牲”。Andotherexpressionsofdeatharenotstrictlyused,suchas“走了”,“去了”,“去世”,“辞世”“安息”,“断气”,“长眠”,“离开”etc.Nowadays,somenewexpressionsareusedbyChinesepeople,like“挂了”,“去见马克思了”“归西了”。Differentcountrieshavedifferentcultures.InChineseculturetherearemoreexpressionsaboutdeaththanthoseinEnglish.AndithasmorerulesthanEnglish.Thehierarchyissostrictinancientchinathatthechoiceofthiskindofvocabularyismadestrictlytoo.Differentsocialclass,age,causeofdeathandreligiousfaithmaycausedifferentversionsofdeathinchina.Firstly,accordingtoaperson’ssocialstatus,therearesomeexpressions.Whentheemperordies,peoplesay“驾崩”;whentheZhuhou(dukesunderanemperor)die,peoplesay“薨”;whentheDafu(aseniorofficialinfeudalChina)dies,peoplesay“卒”;whentheShi(asocialstratuminfeudalChina,betweenseniorofficialsandthecommonpeople)dies,peoplesay“不禄”;whentheCiviliansdie,peoplesay“死”.Secondly,accordingtoperson’sage,therearemanyexpressionsaboutdeath.Whenapersondiesyoungerthantwentyyearsold,peoplesay“殇”.Whatismore,therearesomerulesabout“殇”.Whenapersondiesbetweeneighttoeleven,peoplesay“下殇”;whenapersondiesbetweentwelvetofifteenpeoplesay“中殇”;whenapersondiesbetweensixteentonineteen,peoplesay“上殇”.(Butifthispersonhasbeenbetrothed,peopledonotsay“殇”.)Inaddition,ifitreferstothedeathofababyorachild,peoplesay“夭折”.Ofcourse,whenitcomestoanolderpeople’sdeath,Chinesepeoplehaveanotherexpression.Whenanolderpeopledies,people“寿终”;orsayitmorerespectably“寿终正寝”.Ifthisdiedpersonisawoman,peoplesay“寿终内寝”.Soinlatertimes,“正寝”becomesanewexpressionofdeath.Thirdly,accordingtothedifferentreasonsofdeath,Chinesepeoplealsohavedifferentexpressions.Apersonwhocontributehislifetocareer,peoplesay“殉职”;apersondiesinbattlefield,peoplesay“阵亡”(nowadays,wesay“牺牲”);apersondoesnotdieinhishometown,peoplesay“客死”;apersondiesbyaccident,peoplesay“凶死”.Lastly,accordingtoperson’sreligion,ithasdifferentexpressions.Amonkdies,peoplesay“圆寂”or“坐化”;alamadies,peoplesay“涅槃”;aTaoistpriestdies,peoplesay“羽化”or“登仙”;theChristiansdie,peoplesay“归主”;theMuslimsinHuiMinorityGroup(aminoritygroupinChina)die,peoplesay“无常”.2.5SocialStatusAstosocialconventions,we’dbetterfirsttakealookatthewell-knownEnglishclasssystem.ThisisanembarrassingsubjectforEnglishpeople,andtheonetheytendtobeashamedof,thoughduringthepresentcenturyclass-consciousnesshasbeendeclining.Butitstillexists.Broadlyspeaking,itmeanstherearetwoclasses,the“middleclass”,andthe“workingclass”.Weshallignoreforamomenttheold“upperclass”,includingthehereditaryaristocracy,sinceitisextremelysmallinnumbers:butsomeofitsmembershavetherighttositintheHouseofLords,andsomenewspaperstakeasurprisinginterestintheirprivatelife.Themiddleclassconsistschieflyofwell-to-dobusinessmenandprofessionalpeopleofallkinds.Theworkingclassconsistschieflyofmanualandunskilledworkers.Fromtheclassesmentionedabove,wecanknowinEnglandpeopleareseriouswiththeirstatus.Soitwouldmakeoneunpleasanttoaskhisorherstatus.Thesequestionsmaybeconsideredtaboo.Therefore,awell-bredpersondoesnottalkaboutthesetopicsindailylife.InChineseculture,statusisalsoasensitivetopic.AlthoughChinesedonothaveclassesafterliberation,inChinawell-educatedpeopleoftenhaverespectableanddecentjobs.Theyhavebetterlives.Onthecontrary,uneducatedpeopleareusuallypoor.Theyhavenogoodjobsandtheyareoftenfarmers,ormanualworkersinfactoriesetc.Theirincomeislittleandmean.SoinChinesethereisaword“民工”whichindicateslowersocialstatusandpoorincome.FromtheabovewecanknowthatstatusinChineseisatabootopictoo.Becauseone’ssocialstatusisoftenassociatedwithhisincomesandeducation.Generallyspeaking,thepoorhavelowincomes,theycannotlivewell.Onthecontrary,therichhavehighincomes,andtheylivealifeofluxury.Educationimpactsone’scareer.Ifoneiswelleducated,heoftenhasarespectablejob,likelawyer,doctor,engineeretc.Thosepeoplewhoarenoteducated,theymaynothavegoodjobs.Thepoordonotwantotherstoknowtheyhavenomoney.Similarly,thosepeoplewhodonothavegoodjobsalsodonotwantotherstoknowaboutit.ThemainreasonforthesephenomenaisthesepeopleareafraidthatothersmayconsiderthemlazyorincompetenThereforeitisimpolitetoaskpeople’sstatusesbothinChineseandEnglish.Withthedevelopmentofsociety,it’sexpectedthateveryonecanneglectother’ssocialstatus,andmeetseachotherpolitely.2.6PrivacyonIncomeandWeightItisknowntoall,Englishpeopleare“reserved”.Areservedpersonreferstoonewhodoesnottalkverymuchtoothers.Itisdifficulttogettoknowthem.Asthesayinggoes,“Aman’shomeishiscastle”,thewesternpeopleplaceahighvalueonprivacy.Itisnotappropriateforustoaskquestionsaboutpersonalinformationlikesalary,weight,orquestionsonpersonalactivities.Eventhefamilymembersdonotknowtheexactaccountofeachother,sotheydislikeansweringthesequestions.Thisphenomenondoesn’tshowthebadrelationshipsbetweenthembutjustreflectsoneconceptthateachmemberofonefamilykeepscertainindependenceandfreedom.Thereforethesetopicsarealsoconsideredtaboosinconversation.Someofthesequestionslistedbelowaretabooswhicharenotallowedtosay:“Howmuchdoyouearn?”“Youmakealotofmoney,don’tyou?”“Howmuchdidthatpairofshoescostyou?”“Howmuchdoyouweigh?”Itisadvisablethatweshouldnottalkaboutsuchthings,whenconversingwithEnglish-speakingpeopleunlesstheyindicateclearlythattheydonotmindortheytalkaboutthemfirstthemselves.InChinese,peopleareunwillingtotalkabouttheirincomesandweight.ItisnotwisetoaskChinesepeoplehowmuchheorsheearnseverymonth.Chineseareimplicit.Theydonotliketotalkabouttheirsalaryinpublic.Ifyouaskthemthesequestions,theywouldthinkyouareoffensive.Inmodernsocietypeopleallovertheworldviewbeingslenderasbeauty.Soitisimpolitetoaskpeople’sweight.Moreover,thesequestionsshouldbeespeciallyavoidedinthepresenceofawoman.Generallyspeaking,womenusuallypaymoreattentiontothesethings.HavingcomparedChinesewithEnglishversiononprivacy,wecangettheconclusionthatwesternpeopleplaceahighvalueonprivacywhileChinesepeoplepayattentiontosomeprivatethings.Weshouldknowthedifferentculturebetweenthem.Onlybythiswaycanwecommunicatewellwithpeoplefromdifferentcountries.3.DifferenttaboosinEnglishandChinese3.1PoliticalOpinionFromthecomparisonofEnglishandChinesetaboos,wefindtherearemuchsimilarityinthesetwolanguages.Inconversation,Englishpeopledonotliketotalkabouttheirpoliticalopinioninpublic.Questionslike“AreyouarepublicorDemocrat?”“Whydidyouvotefor…?”“Whatisyouropinionofpolitics?”arenotallowed.ButitiscommoninChinese.Usually,youcanhearpeopleasked,“Areyoumembers?”Chinesepeoplewouldansweryou“yes”or“no”.Generallyspeaking,whetheroneisamemberofapartyornotisassociatedwithone’sbehavior.InChinathisquestionisverycommon.Chinesepeopledon’tconsideritveryoffensive.3.2PrivacyonAgeandMarriageInthepreviouspart,IhavetalkedsometaboosaboutprivatethingsinbothChineseandEnglish.Althoughthesetwocountrieshavesomesimilartaboos,theyalsohavedifferentkindsoftaboos.InEnglish,youcannotaskanyquestionsaboutprivatemattersincludingincomes,age,marriage,weight,etc.IfyouaskanEnglishman“Whereareyougoing?”or“Haveyoueaten?”,hemightthinkyouareveryrude.TheEnglishmenthinkthatisaprivatematter,“WhereIamgoing,whetherIhaveeaten”—thingslikethesearetheirownbusiness.Youshouldneveraskawomanherageandpersonalquestions,orremark,suchas“Whydonotyougetmarried?”“Howoldareyou?”or“Ishouldthinkyouwouldwanttohavesomechildren.”SomeofthesearepermissibleinChina,buttheyaresubjectstobeavoidedinEnglish.Forinstance,anEnglishteachersaidshewasaskedmorethanonehundredtimesaboutherageinChinaoneyear.Shefeltveryunpleasant.Englishpeoplehopeotherscanrecognizetheirownrightsandtheyalsorespectothers’rights.AccordingtoChineseculture,Chinesedonotmindtoomuchwhenotherpeopleaskthemaboutage,familybackgroundandmarriage.WhenotherpeopleaskChinesethesequestions,Chinesepeoplewillbegladtoanswerhimorher.Moreover,theythinkyouarewelcomebecauseyouconcernabouttheirpersonallivesandtheyliketomakefriendswithyou.Chinesepeoplethinkthesethingscanbetalkedopen.Askingyouthesequestionsmeansthattheycareaboutyou.Soindailyconversationyoucanheartheseprivatetopicseverywhereandeverytime.ItiscommoninChinese.3.3NamesInadditiontothetaboosofpeople’spoliticalopinionsandprivacy,nameisanimportantelementoftaboo.Inappellation,EnglishpeoplearedifferentfromChinesepeople.EnglishpeoplearemuchrandomthanChinesepeople.Chinesepeopleareverystrictaboutappellation.Manywordsaretaboosandpeoplecannotusethemfreely.Englishpeoplecanuseanynameifhe/shelikes(exceptgod’sname).Englishpeoplecanhavethesamenamewiththeirmother,father,grandfather,grandmotherandsoon.What’smore,Englishpeoplecanhavethesamenamewithqueenorking.InEnglish,itdoesnotmatter,anditisverycommonformanyEnglishpeopletonametheirchildrenastheylike.ButnaminginChineseismoreseriousandpeoplecannotusethematrandom.Therearemanytaboosinit.AnattempttoclassifynametabooshasbeenmadebyGeorgeB.Foucart.Hedividestheprohibitiononnamesintofivecategories:a)taboosonmentioningthepersonalnameofanindividual,sometimesevenbythepersonhimself;b)prohibitionsonpronouncingthenamesofgods,genii,spiritsandanimisticpowers;c)thesametaboosappliedtothosesecretnamesconferredatinitiationsandconsecrationsuponthosechosetoactasintermediariesbetweenthehumanandspiritwords;d)taboosonnamingthedeadand;e)thenamingofcertainanimals,plantsandtopologicalfeatures.(Lynn,2000)

InancientChina,Chinesepeopleregardedthenamesoftheiremperorsandeldersastaboos.Itwasforbiddentowritethenameofanemperorwhenquotinganythingoldorcomposinganythingnew.Toavoidsuchproblems,lateremperorsweregivennameswithcharactersinventedforthem--charactersthatwereutterlyuselessforanyotherpurpose.

Toillustratetheprinciplesinvolvedhere,letustakealookatthecaseofthemanwhofoundedtheMingDynasty(1368-1644).Asanindividual,hewasamanoftheZhufamilynamedYuanzhang,soaccordingtotheusualmannerhewouldbecalledZhuYuanzhang.However,onceheascendedthethrone,hispersonalnamebecametaboo;thenceforth,hewouldbereferredtobyhisdynasticnameorMiaohao(templename)GreatAncestoroftheMing,orMingTaizu.AccordingtotheconventionsofEnglishusage,wewouldrefertohimasEmperorTaizu.Anotherexample,peopleinTangDynastysubstituted“代”for“世”,“人”for“民”inordertoavoidthegivennameoftangTaizong“李世民”。Besides,peopleshouldavoidtheolderpeople’snameinfamily.Foeexample,ifone’sfather’snamecalled“淮”,hisnamemustavoidthisword.SinceaChinesecharacterhasdifferentelements,ormorphemes,andmostChinesenamesmeansomething.Therearesomewaystoavoidtaboowordsforordinarypeople.Forinstance,apersoncannotuseanywordormorphemeofataboowordashis/hername;heisinclinedtoreplacethetaboowordwithitssynonymsorParasynonyms;orusehomophonesorwordswithsimilarpronunciationassubstitutesofthetabooword;orevenchangethepronunciationofthetaboowordwhenusingit;orusecharactersinsimilarshapes;addcomponentstothetaboocharactertocreateanewoneandsoon.Inshort,Chinesepeopleareseriouswiththeirnames.Thetabooonnamingisatopicwithalonghistory.Weshouldtakeca