Chapter-5-生态系统-06-08-环境生态学英文版本课件

Chapter5EcosystemTheEcosystemisawhole.

Itincludesnotonlyorganiccomplexes,butalsothecomplexthatformallphysicalfactorsofenvironment.——Tansley1.1DefinitionofEcosystem(生态系统)1.2ComponentofEcosystem1.2.1Definition

AllmaterialontheEarthmaybecomponentsoftheecosystem

1.2.2ComponentEcosystemBiologicalcomponents

Non-livingcomponentsProducersMacro-consumerMicro-consumer:Temperature,LightSolidH2O、CO2

、O2OrganicmattersPlantsPhototrophicbacteriaandotherautotrophPrimaryconsumer:HerbivoreSecondaryconsumer:CarnivoreTertiaryconsumer:LargecarnivoreMicroorganism,meiobenthosAbioticenvironment（非生物环境）Including:Climaticfactors,suchaslight,heat,water,air,etc..Inorganicsubstances,suchasC,H,O2,N2,andmineralsalts,etc..Organicsubstances,e.g.carbohydrates,proteins,lipids,andhumusetcThatallaresourcesofecosystemmaterialandenergyProducers

areautotrophicorganismsusingsolarenergytosynthesizethesimpleinorganiccompoundintotheorganiccomplexmattersTheytransformlightenergyintochemicalenergyThebasicofalltheenergyoftheecosystemneededBiologicalcomponentsConsumers

areheterotrophicorganismswhichrelyonautotrophyorotherbio-energyfromfeedingtosurvive,mainlyallkindsofanimals.

Herbivores——PrimaryConsumers

Carnivore——SecondaryConsumers

TwotypesofspecialconsumersRottenfoodconsumers----feedonplantsandanimalsdeadbodiesParasites

----Parasiticonthebodyoritssurfaceofaliveanimalsandplants,livingbyabsorbingnutrientsinahostBiologicalenvironment

Disintegrators(分解者)arereducersbelongingtoHeterotrophicorganisms.

Including:BacteriaFungi

ActinomycetesProtozoa

Theyalldecomposethecomplexorganictosimpleinorganicmatters,thenreturnthematterstotheenvironmentforrecaptureBiologicalcomponentsCase：（mainly

greenplants)——Organismsusesimpleinorganicmatterstomanufactureorganiccompounds（mainly

animal)——Organismsfeedonotherorganismsasfood(Saprophyticbacteria&Epiphyte)——Organismdecomposevarietyofplants,animalsandtheirdroppingstoinorganicmattersProducersConsumersReducers1.3StructureofEcosystemMorphologicstructureSpeciesPopulationsSpeciesspatialconfiguration(horizontalandverticaldistribution)Timechangeofgenus(developmentandseasonal)TrophicStructureThefoodwebsandtherelationshipFoodchainandFoodweb

Foodchain(食物链)Theone-waylinkofchain-typeformedthroughthefeedingRelationshipsamongorganisms

Thefoodchainintertwinedconnectiontoanetwork,knownastheFoodweb(食物网)TypesofFoodChain---Predacityfoodchain(捕食性食物链)

plant→animal→carnivorousherbivorousanimals---Choppedfreshfoodchain(碎食性食物链)

BrokenFood→brokenFoodConsumer→small→largecarnivorousanimalcarnivorousanimals

---Saprophyticfoodchain(腐生性食物链)

plantandanimalresiduesinsoilanimals→Microorganisms→soilanimal---Parasiticfoodchain(寄生性食物链)

mammalsorbirds→fleas→protozoon→viral哺乳类或鸟类→跳蚤→原生动物→滤过性病毒

Guilds(同资源种团)●Biologicalspeciesthathaveverysimilarecologicalcharacteristicsintheuseofcommonresources●“Equivalentpopulation”

Suchas:

HummingbirdGuilds（蜂雀）

TrophiclevelsandEcologicalpyramid

TrophiclevelThesumofallspeciesinsomelinkoffoodchainEnergyflowinginonedirectionTheenergyofeachtrophiclevelisprogressivelyreducedintheprocessEcologicalpyramidEnergypyramidBiomasspyramidNumberpyramid1.4Thecharacteristicsofecosystem

1.4.1Ecosystemisasystemwithdynamicfunction

●Energyexchange

●Materialtransfer●Ecosystemisalwaysindevelopmentandevolution

●Itcanbedivideditintodifferentstages1.4.2EcosystemhascertainregionalcharacteristicsEcosystemassociatedwithaparticularspace,includingspatialconceptspaceforacertainareaandscopeDifferentecologicalconditions——differentspeciesDifferentregionalnaturalenvironmentTropicalrainforestinHainanIslandMixedconiferousforestinChangbaiMountainarea1.4.3Ecosystemisanopenself-sustainingsystem●EnergyandMaterialinputandoutput●

Dischargestheentropy(熵)producedduringmetabolismtothesurroundings●

Producers,Consumers,Decomposers——thestructuralbasisofecosystem“self-maintaining”

1.4.4Ecosystemhavethefunctionofself-regulation

Whenecosystemsubjecttoexternalinterference,thesystemcouldreturntostabilitybySelf-RegulationThemaximumloadofpollutantsforanecosystemEnvironmentalcapacity

TheopenandintegrityTheoryofEcosystem●Ecosystemisanopensystem

ExchangetheinformationwiththeoutsideworldEntropy（熵）exchange●Holismprinciple（EssenceandCore）整体论Threethesisaboutintegrity●Thewholeisgreaterthanthesumofitsparts●Onceitformsthesystem,theelementswillbebrokendownintoseparateparts●Thefeatureandactionofelementsareusefulfortheintegrityofthesystemandare

expressedbytheinteractionClassificationofEcosystem

Accordingtothenatureofthespaceenvironment*Freshwaterecosystem（淡水生态系统）*Marineecosystem（海洋生态系统）*Terrestrialecosystem（陆地生态系统）

Bytheimpactonecosystems

*Naturalecosystem（自然生态系统）*Artificialecosystem（人工生态系统）LakesVirginforestAgro-ecosystemsFundamentalFunctionsofEcosystemPrimaryproductionTheproducers(mainlyplant)transferthesolarenergyintochemicalenergy—Plantproduction

Secondaryproduction

Theconsumers（mainlyanimal）transfertheprimaryproductionintoanimalenergy

—AnimalproductionBiologicalProduction2.1BiologicalproductionRelations&IndependencePrimaryproductionThesolarpowerfixedbyplantortheorganicmatters—Primaryproduction

GP=NP+RGP——TotalprimaryproductionNP——Netprimaryproduction

R——EnergyusedforrespirationGrowthandReproduction(Netprimaryproduction)TotalprimaryproductionEnergyusedforrespirationGPRNP

Production:Thedryweightoforganicmatterproducedbypersquaremeterortheenergyfixedbypersquaremetereveryyear

Biomass:Inaparticularmoment,theaccumulationoforganicmatterinaunitarea

dB/dt=NP-R-H-DHere,dB/dt——changesofbiomassinaperiod

H——Biomassfeedingbythehighertrophiclevel

D——BiomasslosingbythedeathTheDifferenceofProductionandBiomass

TheconstraintsofprimaryproductionForTerrestrialEcosystems●Basicresources:Light，CO2，H2Oandnutrients●ThemainfactorsofPhotosyntheticefficiencybasedonthestabilityWater

Temperature

TheconstraintsofprimaryproductionForWaterecosystemsWatersarethemostimportantfactorsoftheprimaryproductivityJ.H.Ryther(1965)issuedtheFormula：Here,P——Netprimaryproductivityofphytoplankton

R——Relativephotosyntheticratek——Decaycoefficient,lightintensityreducedbythedeepenofthewater.

C——ChlorophyllcontentinwaterNetprimaryproductionconsumption（消耗量,C）:thepartwhichisusedinfeedingtheHerbivoresassimilation（同化量,A）粪便量（F）:thepartwhichisnotdigested.粪尿量（FU）:thepartwhichputFandUrinetogether.Respiration（Ra）

IndividualGrowth（Pg）ReproductionSecondaryproduction2.2EnergyFlowofEcosystemEnergyFlowofEcosystem

mainlyreferstotheprocessofenergygoingthroughthefoodwebinthesystemtotransferanddissipation

Itbeginswiththeprimaryproductionandendsupwiththefunctionofthedisintegrator.Itincludeschangesinenergypatterns,energytransfer,utilizationanddissipation

TheprocessofenergyflowThesolarenergyfixedbyproducersTheamountofsolarenergyfixedbyproducers●Thestartingpointofenergyflow●Totalenergyflowingthroughecosystem●Thepathways(channels)ofenergyflowing●Theenergysourcesandblockedofeachtrophiclevel●EnergydissipationFoodchainsandfoodwebs

RespirationProcessProducers(Plant)Primaryconsumers(Plant-eatinganimal）Secondaryconsumers(Carnivore)TertiaryconsumerRespirationRespirationRespirationRespirationDisintegratorRespirationOneWayFlowing，

ProgressivelydecreasingTransferefficiency:10%—20%Thecharacteristicsofenergyflow2.3MaterialcirculationVariousofnutritionalelementswhicharenecessaryformaintainingnormallife

transferandconversethroughthefoodchainofthetrophiclevels

ThisformsthematerialflowofecosystemBut,itisnotonewayflowing

ReuseCycleRelationshipbetweenmaterialcirculationandenergyflowEnergyflowMaterialcycleFormsOrganicmattersInorganicmattersCharacteristicsOnewayCycleScopeEverytrophiclevelGlobalRelationsFix,store,transferandreleaseofenergydependsonthesynthesisanddecompositionofmaterialMaterialinthevectorEnergyisthepowerofthecycleConceptsPools

(库):thenumberofasubstanceremaining(tobefixedorstorage)inthebioticorabioticenvironmentMaterialcyclingintheecosystemisactuallythematerialtransferringinthepoolsAccordingtolibrarysizeandlevelofactivityofthepools:Poolsusedforstorage(贮存库)

：largevolumeandslowactivity,

generallyanon-biologicalcomponents,suchasrockorsedimentConceptsPoolsusedforexchangeorcycle(交换库或循环库)：smallvolumeandactivepart，suchasplantpools,animalpools,soilpoolsRateofcirculation

(流通率):theamountofmaterialmovingperday,persquare(volume)

Turnoverrates

(周转率)：

FlowrateandpoolsvolumeTurnoverrates

=Flowrate/poolsvolumeTurnovertime

(周转时间):ThecountdownofTurnoverratesTurnovertime

=poolsvolume/Flowrate

Biogeochemicalcycles

Biogeochemicalcycles(生物地球化学循环)

referstoNutrientsinputandoutputintheecosystem,andtheexchangeintheatmosphere,hydrosphereandsoil

Itisdividedinto:WatercyclesGaseouscyclesSolid-phasecycles

Watercycle(水循环)

Solardriveswaterfromoneformintoanotherform,Airflow(wind)andthecurrentspushitcyclingintheBiosphere

GasLiquidandSolid

Gaseouscycles(气相循环)Themajornutrients:Carbonoxygenandnitrogen

N2

inatmosphere

Ureaand

AnimalremainsNO3-MicroorganismsinthesoilNH3NO3-Nitrogenfertilizer①②③④⑤⑥⑦⑧⑨Solid-phasecyclesorsedimentarycyclesAlargepartofthematerialinvolvedinthecycledepositintothecrusttoleavethecycleforashortperiodorlongThisisauncompletecycle.

Including:phosphorus,potassium(钾)andsulfurExample:Phosphoruscycles2.4InformationTransfer

PhysicalInformation(物理信息)：

Theinformationtransferredinphysicalprocesses,suchaslight,sound,color.Animalcourtshipbehavior,intimidation,alarmbehavior,andphysicalinformationareallrelated

Chemicalinformation(化学信息)：

Somesubstancesproducedbybiologicalmetabolism,especiallyvarioustypesofglandssecretehormonesandotherchemicalsaretransmittinginformationBehaviorinformation(行为信息)

：theinformationsendedfromtheabnormalactofplantsandanimals

NutritionInformation(营养信息)

：

Intheecosystem,foodchainisaBio—NutritionInformationsystem.Thefoodchainhasacertainratiorequirements—

EcologicalPyramidLaw(生态金字塔规律)3.2TheCharacteristicsoftheEcosystemBalance3.3EcosystemImbalance3.4TheMechanismofEcosystemBalance3.1TheConceptofEco-systemBalanceStabilityandregulatoryoftheecosystem3.5EstablishTheOptimizationofecosystemsEcologicalBalance

Ecologicalbalanceis"thestabilitycoordinationbetweenorganismsandtheirEnvironment."Ecologicalbalanceisdefinedas:"eco-systemmaterialandenergyBalancebetweeninputandoutput"NegativeentropyflowfromtheinputoftheenvironmentensurestabilityofthesystemandeliminateconfusionTheBalanceoftheecosystemincreasedwiththenumberofcommunityThienemannE.P.OdumStollGreenMacArthurUnityoforganismsandtheirlivingenvironmentThermodynamictheoryofecologicalsystemEcosystemstructureandthestabilityprincipleEcologicalbalanceofinputandoutputBasis

DynamicRelative3.1Eco-systemBalance马世骏1987侯学煜1980诸葛阳1987金以圣1987在一定时间和相对稳定的条件下，生态系统各部分的结构与功能处于相互适应与协调的动态平衡之中当一个生态系统中的能量流动和物质循环过程，在一个相当长期而不是暂时的保持稳态，该生态系统中的有机体种类和数量最多，生物量最大，生产力也最高，这就是平衡状态的标志生态系统在一定时间内结构和功能处于相对稳定状态，即受到外来干扰能够通过自我调节以恢复到原来的稳定状态生态平衡是指在一定时间内生态系统中的生物和环境之间，生物各个种群之间，通过能量流动，物质循环和信息传递使它们相互之间达到高度适应、协调和统一的状态侧重于生态系统结构和功能过程

强调为一种状态既肯定是一种状态，同时也考虑了维持这种状态的机制

3.2TheCharacteristicsOfthe

EcosystemBalanceCharacteristicsofbiologicalenergyFoodNetworkFeaturesThecharacteristicsofnutrientcyclingCharacteristicsofcommunityStructureSelectionpressureSteady-state

DynamicRelativeThebasicfeaturesoftheecosystembalanceisthemeasureindicatorThetotalproductionofecosystem(生态系统总生产量P)Communityrespiration(群落呼吸量R)Childhood,P/R>1，Matureandstableeco-system,

P/Rapproaching1P/R——thebestindicatorsrefertotherelativelymatureofecologicalsystems(1)Characteristicsofbiologicalenergy

Childhood——FoodchainissimpleMatureandstableeco-system:Foodwebstructureisverycomplex,mostgothroughtherottenfoodchain.

Thecomplexstructurehavegreaterresistance.（2）

FoodNetworkFeatures

Ecosystem

Balance

maintainthenutrients

Themainnutrients,suchas：N、P、K、Ca(3)Thecharacteristicsofnutrientcycling

SpeciesDiversityIncrease

ComplexityNutritionStructure

(4)Characteristicsofcommunity

Volumeproductionischaracteristicofchildhoodecosystem.Qualityofproductionandfeedbackcontrolaresignsofmatureecosystems.

(5)Selectionpressure(6)Steady-stateKeeponthestrengthenofnutrition,greatresistance,largeamountofinformationandlowerentropy.3.3

EcosystemImbalance（1）

Naturalfactors:Volcaniceruption,seachange,lightningfire,tsunamis,earthquakes,floodsandlandslides,aswellaschangesinthecrustandsoon.Thereasoncausetheecologicalimbalance.（2）

Humanfactors:Pesticides,largequantitiesofpollutants,forestexploitation,grasslanddegradation,theconstructionofwaterconservancy.NaturalfactorsHumanfactorsDestructivelevelsSeriousandthoroughdestructioncloselyrelatedinthetimeandtheintensityTimelinessSuddenGradual,longeffectRegionalLocalLargeareaFrequency

RequencyisnothighCommonAffectSecondaryPrimary（3）ThedifferenceindamagingeffectsbetweenNaturalfactorsandhumanfactorsonecologicalbalance.Thebasiccharacteristicsoftheecosystemimbalance(1)StructureofsignsWhentheexternalinterferenceisbigenough,itcancauseoneorseveralcomponentsoftheecosystemimpairment,andthiscausePrimaryStructureincomplete.Whenexternaldisturbancesarenotveryserious,theSecondaryStructureoftheecosystemchanged.TreefellingSlightlypollutedwater(2)Functionofsigns

EnergyflowdisruptedorinterruptedinnormalchannelsinacertainnutritionallevelofthesystemEnergyflowblocked——theprimaryproductivityandtheenergyconversionefficiencyreduceor“ineffective”increase.Nutrientcyclingbreaking——therateofinputandoutputamongthelibrariesoutofproportionisthemainreasonofecosystemsimbalance.RedTideExcessiveamountofpollutantswhichexcessoftheself-purificationemissioncapacityintothewaterandaccumulateinthesystem3.4TheMechanismOfEcosystem

Balance

TheabilityofmaintainingtheinternalstabilityBasicprinciples:

Materialcycleprotectionprinciples——ContinuityProductionprotectionprinciples

StructureprotectionprinciplesPrinciplesofecologicalbalance——InternalstabilitymechanismFeedbackmechanismPositivefeedback（正反馈）

makesthesystemmoredeviatedfromthehomesite,soitcannotmaintainthesteady-state

Biologicalgrowth,populationincreaseandsoonareallthepositivefeedback.Negativefeedback（负反馈）Usingitsowncapabilitiesinreducingthepressurewithinthesystemtomaintainsystemstability.Redundancy（后备力）

referstothenumberofspecieswiththesameecologicalfunctionsinthebiologicalcommunity.

RegulationoftheEcologicalBalanceResistance（抵抗力）isthecapacityoftheecosystemresistingtheoutsideinterferencetomaintainthestructureandthefuction.

Complexstructure.Theabilitytoresistdroughtandpestsisstrong

ComplexKoreanpineforestinChangbaiMountainecosystemsResilience（恢复力）

isthecapacityoftheecosystemreturningtoorginalstatefromoutsideinterferencedamage

Simpleecosystemhasstrongrestoringforcesbutlowresistance.

BetweenthetwodottedlinesarethenormalscopeofthesystemThedegreeofdeviationaretheindicatorsinmeasuringtheresistanceofsystem.Thetimerequiredtoreturntothenormalrangeisthequantitativeindicatorsofsystem.ResistanceandresiliencearetwoaspectsofecosystemstabilityEcologicalbalancethreshold(生态平衡阈值)

Ecologicalbalancethresholdisthestrengthnotlossingtheregulationcapacityofecosystemsornotexceedingtherestoringforcefromtheinteferenceoroutsidedamagement.

Thethresholdisrelatetothetypeofecosystems,thenature,waysanddurationofexternalinterferencefactors.

3.5EstablishtheOptimizationof

Ecosystems

Themainlyactivitieswhichdestroytheecologicalbalance.Attention:Therelationshipbetweenresourcesanddevelopment.Therelativebalancebetweensupplyanddemand.Maintainthebiologicalconstraintsrelationship.TheConceptofUrbanEcosystem4.1TheFeaturesofUrbanEcosystems4.2ProblemsexistingintheUrbanEcosystem4.3

Solutions4.44Problems&Solutions

inTheUrbanEcosystem4.1UrbanecosystemUrbanecosystemAspecialartificialecosystem,composingofcityresidentsandtheirenvironment,anatural-economic-societysystem.Itisnotacomplete,self-stabilityecosystemSomecharacteristicsofnaturalecosystemsSomeprominentfeaturesunlikenaturalecosystems

4.2

ThefeaturesofUrbanEcosystems

Humanityisthecoreoftheecosystem

Hugeamountofenergyflowandlogistics,withthehighdensityandfastturnaround.Process:MiningManufacturingTransportationUseWasteCreatorConsumer

Control

and

management

Simplyfoodchainandsmallcapacityofself-regulatingSpeciesdiversity

Stabilitydependsonthecapabilitiesandlevelofregulationofthesocio-economicsub-system.4.3

ProblemsexistingintheUrban

Ecosystem（1）Thedestructionofnaturalenvironment

（2）

Landoccupationandsoilchanges

（3）Climatechangesandairpollution

（4）Watershortageandwaterpollution

（5）Citynoise

（6）PopulationdensityandwithGreen

scarce

（1）Thedestructionofnaturalenvironment

ThedevelopmentofUrbanizationinevitablyaffectthenaturalenvironment.ConvenientComfortablelivingconditionsDestroy

ThebirdsonthestakesSoilchanges（2）Landoccupationandsoilchanges

Landoccupation

（4）WatershortageandwaterpollutionWatershortage

——ConstraintsoftheproblemWaterpollution

IndustrialwastewaterMetalmaterials,chemicals,paper

（3）Airpollution（5）Citynoise

（6）PopulationdensityandGreenscarce

4.4SolutionsUrbanairpollutionandecologicalengineeringEcologicalplanningandassessmentCleanerproductionConstructionofurbangreenspaceUrbanwaterpollutionandEcologicalEngineeringDepurationThehealthcycleofurbanwaterUrbanNoiseecologicalengineeringAnti-vocalMunicipalsolidwastetreatmentanddisposalEnvironment-EconomicDevelopmentEcologicalPlanningandAssessmentOptimizationschemeTheself-regulationSustainabledevelopmentAvoidtheurbanatmospheric