针对妇女的性别暴力的经济成本-The costs of gender-based violence in the European Union

Gender-basedviolence

Thecostsofgender-basedviolenceintheEuropeanUnion

EuropeanInstitute

forGenderEquality

Thecostsofgender-based

violenceintheEuropeanUnion

Abbreviations

Thecostsofgender-basedviolenceintheEuropeanUnion3

Abbreviations

CSEW

EIGE

GREVIO

LAA

MHCLG

NGO

OECD

ONS

CrimeSurveyforEnglandandWales

EuropeanInstituteforGenderEquality

GroupofExpertsonActionagainstViolenceagainstWomenandDomesticViolenceLegalAidAgency

MinistryofHousing,CommunitiesandLocalGovernance

non-governmentalorganisation

OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment

OfficeforNationalStatistics

Contents

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EuropeanInstituteforGenderEquality

Contents

Abbreviations3

Executivesummary5

1.Introduction7

1.1.Structureofthisreport7

2.Estimatingthecostsofgender-basedviolenceintheEU–UKcasestudy8

2.1.Methodology8

2.2.UKcasestudy11

2.3.ExtrapolationtoEUMemberStates22

2.4.Conclusions24

3.Methodologiesforestimatingthecostsofgender-basedviolenceandviolence

againstwomenandmen–criticalreview25

3.1.Methodologyoftheliteraturesearch25

3.2.Overviewoftheselectedstudies28

3.3.Comparisonofmethodologiesforestimatingthecostsofgender-based

violenceorviolenceagainstwomenandmen29

3.4.Strengthsandlimitationsoftheselectedstudies42

3.5.Reflectionsandlessonslearned43

References50

Executivesummary

Thecostsofgender-basedviolenceintheEuropeanUnion5

Executivesummary

Gender-basedviolenceisoneofthemostsevereformsofgenderinequalityanditremainsoneofthemostpervasivehumanrightsvio-lations,affectingwomendisproportionately.Gender-basedviolencenotonlycausespainandsufferingtothevictims,butalsoplaceslargecostsontheeconomyandsocietyasawhole.However,theextentandassociatedcostsofgender-basedviolence,encompass-inglosteconomicoutput,publicspendingonhealth,legal,socialandspecialisedservicestomitigateharms,andpersonalimpactsonvic-tims,arerarelyseen.

Inthiscontext,thisstudyprovidesupdatedesti-matesofthecostsofgender-basedandintimatepartnerviolenceintheEuropeanUnion.Theseupdatedestimatesarebasedonthe2014Euro-peanInstituteforGenderEquality(EIGE)reportentitledEstimatingthecostsofgender-basedvio-lenceintheEuropeanUnion.ThemethodusedtocalculatethesecostsinvolvedcalculatingestimatesfortheUnitedKingdomandextrap-olatingtheresultstoEUMemberStates.TheUnitedKingdomwaschosenasacasestudyasrelevantinformationwasavailabletocalculatethesecosts.

Becauseoftheabsenceofcomprehensivedataforcomparablecostestimates,thefinalesti-mateswereextrapolatedtoEUMemberStatesbyadjustingthetotalcostsofgender-basedandintimatepartnerviolencetotherelativepopulationsizeoftheUnitedKingdomandeachMemberState.Themethodofextrapo-latingcostsfromtheUnitedKingdombasedonpopulationsizesalonehassomelimitationsandtheseshouldbeconsideredwheninter-pretingthecostestimates.Potentialdiffer-encesinsurvey-basedprevalenceandreport-ingratesincrimesurveysorpolicedataacrossMemberStatesaswellasdifferencesinservicecostsandexpendituredataneedtobetakenintoaccount.

ExtrapolatingtheUKcasestudyresultstotheEUbyadjustingtheestimatestothepopulationsizeofeachEUMemberState,theestimatedcostofgender-basedviolenceagainstwomenintheEU-27wasmorethanEUR290billion(1),representing79%ofallcostsofgender-basedviolenceagainstbothwomenandmen.Theesti-matedcostofintimatepartnerviolenceagainstwomenintheEU-27wasnearlyEUR152bil-lion(2),representing87%ofallcostsofintimatepartnerviolenceagainstbothwomenandmen.

Aswellasthecostestimates,thisreportpro-videsacriticalassessmentofstudiescarriedoutwithintheEUtoestimatethecostsofgender-basedandintimatepartnerviolencethathavebeenpublishedsinceEIGE’s2014study.Basedonanin-depthassessmentofthecost-ingmethodologiesappliedinrecentliterature,thisreviewprovidesasetoflessonslearnedforfuturecostingstudiesatEuropeanlevel,aswellasrecommendationsforestimatingthecostsofgender-basedviolenceatMemberStateandEUlevels.

Thereviewnotedthatgender-basedviolenceisacomplexproblemthatcanaffectthelivesofthevictims,thoseclosetothemandsocietyasawhole,bothdirectlyandindirectly,makingitparticularlydifficulttocapturethefullextentoftheeffectsofviolenceincostingstudies.Therefore,carefulconceptualisationisrequiredtofullyunderstandthelandscapeoftheagentsinvolved(individualsandorganisations),aswellasthecoststheyincur.

ThereviewalsohighlightedtheneedtostrengthennationalandEUdatacollectionontheextentofgender-basedviolenceanditscostsandtheuseofservicesasaresultofgender-basedviolence,includingcomprehen-siveadministrativedatafrompublicservicesandpopulationsurveys.Becauseofculturalandinstitutionalfactorssuchasbarrierstore-

(1)Thefullestimatedcostofgender-basedviolenceagainstwomenintheEUwasEUR290309795927.(2)ThefullestimatedcostofintimatepartnerviolenceagainstwomenintheEUwasEUR151950791341.

Executivesummary

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EuropeanInstituteforGenderEquality

porting,theuseofarangeofvaluesordifferentdatasourcesisrecommendedtoaddressuncer-taintiesintheextentofgender-basedviolenceinacountry.Forexample,uncertaintiescanbeaddressedthroughtheuseofconfidenceinter-vals,byusingbothprevalenceandincidencedataandmultiplesourcesofdata.Moreover,itisrecommendedthatsensitivityanalysesarecarriedouttoassesstherobustnessoftheme-thodologyusedinordertoquantifyhowuncer-taintiesregardingdifferentinputscanimpactfinalcostestimates.Inaddition,followinguponexistingcostestimatesofgender-basedvio-

lencecanfurtheradvancepolicymaking.Theexamplesprovidedinthisreportcanalsosup-portpolicymakersandrelevantinstitutionsintheireffortstocombatgender-basedviolenceandassessthegapsbetweenserviceuseandthebudgetsallocatedtogender-basedvio-lencepolicies,measuresandserviceprovision.Theycanalsobeusedtodevelopamacroeco-nomicmodelformeasuringtotaloutputgainsorlossestotheeconomyandtomonitortheevolutionofserviceprovisionandtheextentofgender-basedviolencetoinformfuturecostingstudies.

1.Introduction

Thecostsofgender-basedviolenceintheEuropeanUnion7

1.Introduction

Gender-basedviolenceisawidespreadphenom-enonintheEuropeanUnion,affectingwomendisproportionally–in2012,oneinthreewomenaged15oroverexperiencedphysicaland/orsexualviolence(3).Althoughapricecannotbeputonwomen’slivesandsuffering,estimatingthelosteconomicoutputandpublicspendingonhealth,legal,socialandspecialisedserviceswithregardtogender-basedviolencecancre-ateabetterunderstandingoftheextentandassociatedcostsofthisphenomenon.AttachingamonetaryvaluetotheissuecanalsofurthersupportbothMemberStatesandtheEUinmak-inginformeddecisionsregardingresourceallo-cationacrossdifferentpolicyareas(EIGE,2014).Analysisoftheeconomiccostsofgender-basedviolencemayalsoshowthecostofinactionandlackoffinancialprioritisation.

Acknowledgingtheimportanceofpreventingandcombatinggender-basedviolenceintheEU,thisstudyestimatesthecostsofgender-basedviolence,usingexistingmethodologyfromtheEuropeanInstituteforGenderEquality’s(EIGE)2014studyentitledEstimatingthecostsofgen-der-basedviolenceintheEuropeanUnion(EIGE,2014).Asinthepreviousstudy,thisreportfocusesonintimatepartnerviolenceasasub-setofgender-basedviolence.IntimatepartnerviolenceisdefinedbytheCouncilofEuropeas‘allactsofphysical,sexual,psychologicaloreconomicviolencebetweenformerorcurrentspousesorpartners,whetherornottheper-

petratorsharesorhassharedthesameresi-dencewiththevictim’(4).Thebroadercategoryofgender-basedviolenceadditionallyincludesviolencefromotherfamilyandhouseholdmem-bersandformsofgender-basedviolencethatareperpetratedbynon-intimatepartnersandnon-householdmembers(EIGE,2014).ThisbroadercategoryofviolenceagainstwomenisdefinedbytheUNas‘anyactofgender-basedviolencethatresultsin,orislikelytoresultin,physical,sexualorpsychologicalharmorsuf-feringtowomen,includingthreatsofsuchacts,coercionorarbitrarydeprivationofliberty,whetheroccurringinpublicorinprivatelife’(5).

1.1.Structureofthisreport

Thisreportfocusesonupdatingestimatesofthecostsofgender-basedandintimatepart-nerviolenceintheUnitedKingdomin2019.TheseestimatesarethenextrapolatedfromtheUnitedKingdomtoEUMemberStates.Thisupdatedstudyonthecostsofgender-basedviolenceintheEUisaccompaniedbyacriticalreviewofstudiescarriedoutwithintheEUtoestimatethecostsofgender-basedandintim-atepartnerviolencethathavebeenpublishedsinceEIGE’s2014study.Thisreviewprovidesasetoflessonslearnedforfuturecostingstud-iesatEuropeanlevelandrecommendationsforestimatingthecostsofgender-basedviolenceatMemberStateandEUlevels.

(3)(4)(5)

https://fra.europa.eu/en/data-and-maps/violence-against-women-survey/survey-information

/en/web/conventions/full-list/-/conventions/treaty/210

/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/ViolenceAgainstWomen.aspx

2.Estimatingthecostsofgender-basedviolenceintheEU–UKcasestudy

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2.Estimatingthecostsofgender-basedviolenceintheEU–UKcasestudy

2.1.Methodology

FollowingEIGE’s2014study,theUKcasestudyadherestoHomeOfficemethodologytomeas-urethecostsofcrime,includinglosteconomicoutput,utilisationofthehealthsystemandcriminaljusticesystemandphysicalandemo-tionalimpactsonvictims.In2018,theHomeOfficepublishedthesecondeditionofTheEco-nomicandSocialCostsofCrime(Heeksetal.,2018),whichprovidesupdatedestimatesforthe‘unitcosts’ofcrime.Toobtainupdatedcostestimatesofgender-basedandintimatepartnerviolencefortheUnitedKingdom,theunitcostofcrimeobtainedfromtheHomeOfficereportwasadjustedforinflationtoreflect2019prices,convertedfrompoundssterlingtoeurobasedonthemid-2019conversionrateandthenmulti-pliedbythenumberofincidentsofcrimeundereachtypeofcrimecategory.Informationontheincidenceofcrimewasprimarilyderivedfromthe2019/2020CrimeSurveyforEnglandandWales(CSEW)(6)andhomicidestatistics(7)forEnglandandWales,ScotlandandNorthernIre-land.

InadditiontotheHomeOfficemethodology,othertypesofcoststhatareknowntobere-latedtogender-basedandintimatepartnerviolenceweremeasuredbyapplyingtheme-thodologiesusedinEIGE’s2014study.These

costsincludethoserelatedtopolicetimespenton‘no-crimeincidents’(8)andutilisationoftheciviljusticesystem,socialwelfaresystemandspecialisedservices,andpersonalcosts.Thesecostestimateswerederivedfromadditionaldatasourcesincludinglegalaidstatistics,fam-ilycourtstatistics,localauthorityexpendituresandOfficeforNationalStatistics(ONS)divorcestatistics.

ThemethodologypresentedheredescribesthekeyaspectsoftheapproachusedtoobtainthecostestimatesfortheUnitedKingdomandextrapolatethemtoEUMemberStates.Acom-prehensiveaccount,includingthestep-by-stepapproachusedanddetailsofdatalimitations,isprovidedinaseparatetechnicalreport.

2.1.1.UpdatestothemethodologyusedintheUKcasestudy

Relevanttothiscasestudy,themainupdatetotheHomeOfficemethodologywastheavailabil-ityoftheunitcostofcrimebycrimeclassifica-tion.InEIGE’s2014study,unitcostsofviolentincidentswereavailablefromtheHomeOfficeforthefollowingcrimeclassifications:homicide,wounding,commonassaultandsexualviolence.Atthetimeofthepresentcasestudy,theCSEWcollecteddataonviolentcrimeusingadiffer-

(6)

(7)

(8)

.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/crimeandjustice/bulletins/crimeinenglandandwales/yearending

-

march2020

EnglandandWaleshomicidedata,Tables11aand11b(

.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/crimeandjus

-

tice/datasets/appendixtableshomicideinenglandandwales

);Scotlandhomicidedata,Table8(

.scot/publications/

homicide-scotland-2019-2020/pages/3/#:~:text=The%20number%20of%20homicide%20cases,which%20comparable%20data%20

are%20available

);NorthernIrelandhomicidedata,‘Domesticabuseannualtrends’,Table3.9(

https://www.psni.police.uk/inside

-

psni/Statistics/domestic-abuse-statistics/

).

‘Nocrime’isacategoryofpoliceworkthatcoverscasesinwhichthepolicehavebeencalledtorespondtoanincidentandtheincidentisdeemednottomeetthelegalthresholdforacriminaloffence.InEnglandandWales,thereweremorethan1millioncallstothepolicein2012/2013fordomesticabuse-relatedincidentsandonly269700incidentswererecordedasdomesticviolence-relatedcrimes(HMIC,2014).Thesedatashowthat‘no-crimeincidents’makeupasubstantialcomponentofpoliceactivity(anditisalsoimportanttonotethatmanyeventsareprobablymisclassified)(EIGE,2014).

2.Estimatingthecostsofgender-basedviolenceintheEU–UKcasestudy

Thecostsofgender-basedviolenceintheEuropeanUnion9

entsetofclassifications.CorrespondingtotheupdatestocrimeclassificationsintheCSEW,the2018editionoftheHomeOfficemethodologyprovidedunitcostssubdividedbythefollowingcrimeclassifications:homicide,violencewithinjury,violencewithoutinjury,rapeandothersexualoffences.

Themethodologiesappliedtoestimatethecostsoftheutilisationoftheciviljusticesys-tem,self-fundedlegalcostsandthecostsofhomelessnessprevention(previouslysanctuaryschemes)wereupdatedbasedontheavailabil-ityofdataandexaminationofthecurrentpolicycontextintheUnitedKingdom.Thesechangesaredetailedinthetechnicalreport.

2.1.2.DataupdatesintheUKcasestudy

Thiscasestudyusedacombinationofupdatedsurveydataonvictimsofcrimeandcostesti-matesbasedonadministrativedatafromthesamestatisticalsourcesasinEIGE’s2014studywhereavailable;alternativedatasourceswithmorerecentorcompletedatawhereappro-priate;andoldindicatorswhereappropriatealternativedatasourceswerenotavailable.Allcostswereadjustedforinflationto2019levelsinaccordancewiththe2014methodology.Moreover,inaccordancewiththe2014method-ology,iftherequireddatawerenotavailablefortheUnitedKingdom,dataforthecostestimateswereextrapolatedtotheUnitedKingdomusingmultipliersbasedonrelativepopulationsizes(e.g.fromEnglandandWalestotheUnitedKing-dom).ThemethodforextrapolatingcoststotheUnitedKingdombasedonpopulationsizesalonehassomelimitations,whichshouldbeconsideredwheninterpretingthecostesti-mates.BecauseofthedevolutionofhealthandsocialcareservicesandjusticeandpolicingintheUnitedKingdom(9),publicservicesystemsandexpendituresmayvaryacrossEngland,

Wales,ScotlandandNorthernIreland.WhendatafromEnglandandWalesareextrapolatedtotheUnitedKingdomusingapopulation-basedmulti-plier,thecostestimatesmightbebiasedtowardscostsinEnglandandWalesasthecalculationsdonotaccountforpotentialdifferencesincostsofserviceprovisionbetweenEnglandandWalesandtherestoftheUnitedKingdom.

Themostsignificantchangefromthe2014me-thodologyconcernstheincidencedata.Thepre-viousstudyreliedonmicrodatafromtheCSEW,whereasthisupdatereliesonpubliclyavailableinformationpublishedbytheONS.Often,thispublishedinformationdidnotincludethere-quiredbreakdownofthedata(e.g.bysex,byvictim–perpetratorrelationship).Therefore,weusedauxiliaryinformationtomakeassumptionsaboutthedataandadjustedestimatesbasedontheseassumptions.Themainassumptionsareasfollowsandarediscussedindetailinthetechnicalreport.

1.PublishedcrimestatisticsfromtheCSEWprovideestimatesofthenumberofvictimsofcrimeratherthanthenumberofincidentsofcrime.InordertofollowthemethodologyusedinEIGE’s2014studyandtheHomeOfficemethodology,transformationofthedatawasrequiredtoestimatethenumberofincidentsofcrimeusingvictim-baseddata.Thiswascarriedoutbyusinginformationontheproportionofvictimsofdomesticvio-lencewhosaidtheywerevictimsonce(oneincident:66%ofvictims),twotofourtimes(amedianofthreeincidents:27%ofvictims)orfiveormoretimes((atleast)fiveincidents:7%ofvictims)(10).Thenumberofvictimswasthenscaledupbythisinformationtoesti-matethenumberofincidents.Alimitationofthisapproachisthatitdoesnotdistinguishbetweenmenandwomenvictimsofrepeatviolencebutassumesthesamerateforboth.Italsoassumesthatthesameratesapplyfor

(9)

(10)

.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/770709/DevolutionFactsheet.

pdf

TableD7foryearendingMarch2020in‘CrimeinEnglandandWales:Annualtrendanddemographictables’(

.

uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/crimeandjustice/datasets/crimeinenglandandwalesannualtrendanddemographictables

).

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EuropeanInstituteforGenderEquality

victimsofdomesticviolenceandvictimsofintimatepartnerviolence.

2.Nosurveydatawereavailableonrapebyvictim’sgenderregardlessofthevictim’srelationshiptotheperpetrator(althoughdataonpolice-recordedcrimeswereavaila-ble).ThisstudyusedinformationonrapebydomesticpartnersfromtheCSEW(domes-ticabusemodule)andappliedamultiplierobtainedfrompoliceadministrativedataontheproportionofrapesthatarereportedinadomesticabusecontexttoscaleupthenumberofvictimsofrape.Thelimitationofthisapproachisthatthisattributionreliesonrecordedoffencesanddoesnotconsiderinstancesinwhichoffencesarenotrecorded(e.g.womenandmenmaybelesslikelytoreportinstancesofdomesticrape,ordomesticrapeoverallmaybereportedlessfrequently).

3.Nodatawereavailableonviolencewithinjuryandviolencewithoutinjurybyrelationshiptotheperpetratoralthoughthesedatawereavailablebygenderofthevictim.TheCSEWdataweredisaggregatedintointimatepart-neranddomesticviolenceusingmultipliersobtainedfrompoliceadministrativedataontheproportionsofviolentincidentsrecordedbyrelationshiptotheperpetrator,withoutdisaggregationbysex.Alimitationofthisapproachisthatthesexofthevictimswasnotconsidered;rather,thesameproportionsfordomesticandintimatepartnerviolencewereappliedtowomenandmen.Inaddition,thepolicedataonrecordedcrimedonotincludedatafromGreaterManchesterPoliceandthereforetheyunderestimaterecordedcrimesinEnglandandWales.

2.1.3.ExtrapolationtoEUMemberStates

Toextrapolatethecostsofgender-basedandintimatepartnerviolenceintheUnitedKing-domin2019toEUMemberStates,thetotal

costsofgender-basedandintimatepartnervio-lence(themselvesextrapolatedfromEnglandandWalesforsomeofthedata)wereadjustedtotherelativepopulationsizesoftheUnitedKingdomandeachMemberState,inaccord-ancewiththe2014methodology.Forexample,thepopulationofBelgiumwasestimatedtobearound17.1%ofthepopulationoftheUnitedKingdomin2019;therefore,thetotalcostsofgender-basedviolenceandintimatepartnerviolenceintheUnitedKingdomweremultipliedby0.171toextrapolatethemtoBelgium.

Extrapolationwasappliedbecauseoftheabsenceofcomprehensivedataprovidingcom-parablecostestimates.However,therearesev-erallimitationstothisapproach,whichshouldbeconsideredwheninterpretingthecostesti-matesinEUMemberStates.

Extrapolationdoesnotconsiderpotentialdiffer-encesinsurvey-basedprevalenceratesacrossMemberStates,whichmeansthatthecostesti-matesdonotcaptureifsomeMemberStateshaveahigherprevalenceofgender-basedandintimatepartnerviolencethanothers.

Reportingratesforgender-basedandintimatepartnerviolenceincrimesurveysandpolicedatamayvarybetweencountriesdependingonawarenessoftheissueandinstitutionalandcul-turalbarrierstoreporting.ExtrapolationdoesnotquantifypotentialdifferencesinreportingratesandhowsuchdifferencesmayaffectthecostestimatesforEUMemberStates.Simi-larly,theinabilitytoaccessmicrodatafromtheCSEWrestrictedtheanalysistopubliclyavail-abledatafromtheONS.Toestimatethenum-bersofincidentsofgender-basedandintimatepartnerviolence,thisstudyuseddataontheprevalenceofgender-basedviolenceinEnglandandWalesintheyearendingMarch2020.Giventhatonepersoncanbeavictimmorethanonce,prevalenceisnotsufficienttoesti-matethecostsofgender-basedandintimatepartnerviolence,especiallyinthecaseofthelatter,whererepeatedincidentstendtobethe

2.Estimatingthecostsofgender-basedviolenceintheEU–UKcasestudy

Thecostsofgender-basedviolenceintheEuropeanUnion11

norm.Becauseoftheselimitations,thisstudy

transformedtheavailableprevalencedatatonumbersofincidentsusingestimatesfromtheCSEWonthepercentagesofthesamplewhoreportedthattheyhadbeenvictimisedonce,twotofourtimesorfiveormoretimes.How-ever,thisislikelytounderestimatetheactualnumbersofincidents,giventhatthevictimisa-tionrateswerecappedatfiveforrespondentswhoreportedthattheywerevictimisedfiveormoretimes.

Moreover,thisextrapolationreliesonUKser-vicecostsandexpendituredataandthereforedoesnotcapturedifferencesbetweencountriesbasedonthetype,availabilityanduseofser-vices.PublicservicesystemsandgovernmentexpenditurevaryacrossEUMemberStatesdependingonfactorssuchastheutilisationofservices,levelsofdecentralisation,legaldutytoprovidefinancialassistance,forexampleinthecaseofhomelessness(BaptistaandMarlier,2019),andthetypesofservicesavailable.Thelevelofgovernmentexpenditureisalsolikelytoinfluencetheaveragecostofutilisingaserviceforavictimofgender-basedorintimatepartnerviolence.

Anotherimportantlimitationofthepre-sentstudyrelatestotherelianceonexistingresearchtoestimatetheproportionofexpend-itureintheoverallpopulationresultingfromintimatepartnerviolence.Inparticular,someofthecostestimates(civillegalcostsandchildwelfarecosts)reliedonWalby’s(2004)esti-matesontheproportionofdivorcesresult-ingfromintimatepartnerviolenceandontheco-occurrenceofchildabuse/negligenceanddomesticviolence.Thesemultiplierswereesti-matedusingdatafrom2001orearlier.Assuch,usingthesemultipliersinthepresentstudymeantrelyingontheassumptionthattrendsinthepatternofdivorcesattributabletointimatepartnerviolenceandintheco-occurrenceofchildabuse/negligenceanddomesticviolencewereunchanged.Finally,assumptionsweremadeaboutwhattoincludeandwhatnottoincludeinsomeofthecategoriesassociatedwithintimatepartnerviolencebasedontheavailabledata.Forexample,inthecaseofchildwelfareexpenditure,toestimatetheproportionofchildreninneedbecauseofintimatepartnerviolence,thisstudyreliedonthenumberofchildrenreferredbecauseof‘abuseorneglect’.Thetechnicalreportofthisstudydetailsthemethodologicalchoicesandassumptionsmadeforeachcostestimate.

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2.2.UKcasestudy

Thissectionpresentstheresultsforeachtypeofcostfollowedbyasummaryoftheresults.Thetypesofcostsincludedbroadlycoverlosteconomicoutput,costsofpublicservices,andtheph