全球EV展望2023年-英

ThisisanexcerptfromBloombergNEF’s

2023ElectricVehicleOutlook.

Tofindoutmoreabout

the

fullreport,pleasecontact

our

team.ExecutiveSummaryThetransportation

andautomotivesectorsare

undergoingaperiodofprofoundtransformation.Electrificationis

nowspreadingrapidly

in

almostallsegmentsofroadtransport,frompassengercarstocommercialvehicles,busesandtwo-andthree-wheelers.Eachcountryhasitsownuniquemixofvehiclesand

whileprogressvariesacrossthem,theoveralldirectionoftravelisincreasinglyclear.730millionNumber

ofpassengerEVsontheroadin2040intheEconomicTransitionScenarioTechnologychanges

areatthecoreofthistransitionasbatteryprices

havefallendramaticallyoverthelastdecade.Batterypricesroseforthefirsttimein

2022butinnovationintheareaisnot

slowingdown,withadvancesin

areaslikesolid-statebatteries,next-generationcathodeandanodechemistries,andsodium-iontechnologyallreachingcommercializationin

thenextfewyears.2029Yearroad

transportemissionspeak$1.9trillionYettechnologychangesalonearenotenoughto

keeptheroadtransportsector

on

trackfornet-zeroemissionsby

mid-century.Policymakershaveanimportantroletoplayindrivingtheautomotivemarkettowardzero-emissions

options,improvingfuelefficiency,gettingthepowersystem

readyfor

electricvehicles,andinreducingoverallcardependency.Eliminatingemissionsfrom

roadtransportwillrequireallhands

ondeck,includingautomakers,batterymanufacturers,chargingcompanies,gridoperators,miners,largefleet

operatorsandconsumers.Charginginfrastructuremarketopportunitybetweentodayand2050intheEconomicTransitionScenarioAsmomentumgrows,neweconomicopportunities

are

takingshape.Batteriesandelectricvehicleshavetakencenterstageinnewdiscussionsonindustrialpolicy,withcountries

nowcompetingtoattractinvestmentandbuildnew

clustersofhigh-valuemanufacturing.Meanwhile,regulatorsandgridoperatorsarelookingatwaystoensureEVsbenefitthepowersystem.Electrificationis

notthe

onlyvectorofchange.Sharedmobility,vehicleconnectivityand,eventually,autonomousvehicles

arealsosetto

reshapeautomotiveandfreightmarketsaroundtheworld.Urbanizationalsocontinuesitssteadymarch,leadingto

increasedconcernsaroundvehicle

congestionandurbanairquality.Thisreport

drawsonBloombergNEF’s

teamofsectoralandregionalexpertsaroundtheworld.Itupdatesour

outlookforhowroadtransportcouldevolveoverthenext

30years.ItincludesanalysisonEV

adoptionin

passengervehicles,commercialvansandtrucks,two-andthree-wheeledvehicles

andbusesglobally.Italsolooksatotherdrivetrains,includinghybrids,naturalgasandfuelcells,andthenexploresthe

resultingimpactsofalloftheseonelectricitymarkets,oildemand,batterymaterials,charginginfrastructureandCO2emissions.Thekeyfindingsareasfollows:•Directelectrificationviabatteriesis

themostefficient,cost-effectiveandcommerciallyavailableroutetofullydecarbonizingroad

transport.

Fuelcellvehiclesplayaroleinsomehard-to-electrifylong-haultruckingapplicationsbut

playno

meaningfulrolein

theNoportionofthisdocumentmaybereproduced,scannedintoanelectronicsystem,distributed,publiclydisplayedor

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applies

throughout.1©BloombergFinanceL.P.2023passengervehiclemarket.

Syntheticfuelsdo

not

arrive

at

scale

in

timeorat

apricepointneededto

haveamaterialimpact

on

roadtransport.•EVsales

continuetosurgein

thenextfew

years,risingfrom10.5millionin2022toalmost

27millionin2026.TheEVshareofglobal

new

passenger

vehiclesalesjumpsfrom14%in2022to

30%in

2026.Sharesin

somemarketsaremuchhigher,withEVsreaching52%of

salesinChinaand42%inEurope.SomeEuropean

carmarketsmoveevenfaster,withtheNordicsat89%andGermanyat59%.IntheUS,amajor

pushfromtheInflationReductionActmeans

EVs

makeupnearly28%

ofpassengervehiclesalesby

2026,upfrom7.6%

in2022.TheEVadoptiongap

betweenwealthyandemergingeconomiescontinuestogrowin

thenearterm,

but

Japansignificantlylagsother

wealthycountries.Thefleetgrowsevenfaster,

risingfrom27

millionpassenger

EVson

theroadattheendof2022to

over100millionby

2026.Figure1:Globalnear-termpassengerEVsalesandshareofnew

passengervehiclesales

bymarketMillion3025201510560%50%40%30%20%10%0%26.622.417.514.110.56.53.22.0

2.21.10.70201620212026201620212026China

Europe

US

Japan

Canada

S.Korea

SoutheastAsia

Australia

India

RestofWorld

GlobalSource:BloombergNEF.Note:EuropeincludestheEU,theUKandEFTAcountries.EV

includesBEVsandPHEVs.••Combustionvehiclesaleshavepeaked.

Salesofinternalcombustionvehiclespeakedin2017

and

arenowinlong-termdecline.By2026,salesof

combustionvehiclesare39%lowerthantheir

peakin2017.

Thecombustionvehiclefleet

peaksin

2025.Thelong-termpictureis

gettingbrighter,butchallengesremain.EVs

reach44%

ofglobalpassengervehiclesalesby2030and

75%

by2040

in

ourEconomicTransitionScenario.Afterincreasingrapidlyfrom2022to

2035,EVsalesgrowthslowsdown

slightlyinthelate2030sinthe

mainEVmarketslikeEurope,

ChinaandtheUS

astheybegintosaturate.Althoughpubliccharginginfrastructure

is

growingat

paceglobally,it

stillpresentsapotentialbarrierto

electrifyingthelast10-20%of

the

marketin

manycountries.While

EVsalesexhibitatraditional‘S-curve’for

adoption,eachcountryandregion

startsonthistrajectoryatdifferent

times.The

variedstart

timeandslowdownpointsbetweencountriesmean

that

the

globalaverage

appears

morelinearthananyindividualcountry.

DespiterapidEVadoption,

lessthan

50%

of

theglobal

passenger

vehiclefleetiselectricby

2040.Noportionofthisdocumentmaybereproduced,scannedintoanelectronicsystem,distributed,publiclydisplayedor

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derivativeworkswithoutthepriorwrittenconsentofBloombergFinanceL.P.

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throughout.2©BloombergFinanceL.P.2023Figure2:Globalpassenger

vehiclesalesby

drivetrain

–Figure3:Globalpassenger

vehiclefleetby

drivetrain

–EconomicTransitionScenarioEconomicTransitionScenarioMillionBillion1.61.41.21Batteryelectric1009080706050403020100InternalcombustionPlug-inhybridHybrid0.80.60.40.20HybridPlug-inhybridInternalcombustionBatteryelectric2022202520302035204020202025203020352040Source:BloombergNEF.Source:BloombergNEF.•Electrificationis

now

spreadingquicklyto

allareas

ofroadtransport.

LightcommercialEVsalesaresettorisequicklydueto

attractiveeconomics,more

modelsavailable,growingfleet

commitmentsand

citypolicies,reaching

almost70%of

globalsalesby

2040,led

byChina.Theeconomicsof

electric

heavy

trucks

improverapidlythroughoutthe2020sandbecomeascheapas

dieselequivalentsevenfor

long-haulapplications.

However,fuelcostsstillmatter

andnaturalgasremainseconomicallycompetitive.Fuelcelltruckcostsdeclineaswell,butuncertaintyontheirtrajectoryis

high.

Overallroad

freight

demandrises46%

from2020to

2040,highlightingtheneedforcompetitivezero-emissionsoptionsin

thissegment.Municipalbusesarealsoelectrifyingquickly.Europeand

the

USbeginto

catchupwithChinainthismarketandEVs

reach36%and24%of

municipalbussalesrespectivelyby

2026.Two-and

three-wheeledvehiclesalesalsocontinuetorisein

emergingeconomiesandaresetto

be

almostallelectricgloballyby

2040.Figure4:

Totalcost

ofownershipofheavy-dutytruckin

long-hauldutycyclein

2030$/km0.80.7Diesel0.60.50.40.30.20.10.0NaturalgasBatteryelectricFuelcellUSChinaGermanySource:BloombergNEF.Note:Theheavy-dutytruckis

modeledon

aClass8vehiclewith

800kilometersofreal-worlddrivingrange.Noportionofthisdocumentmaybereproduced,scannedintoanelectronicsystem,distributed,publiclydisplayedor

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applies

throughout.3©BloombergFinanceL.P.2023•Reachingnet-zeroroad

transportemissions

by2050is

still

possiblebutmuchfasterprogressis

needed.Thegap

betweenBNEF’sEconomicTransitionScenarioandtheNetZeroScenarioissmaller

thaninanyof

ourpreviousprojections.Thisis

due

to

newstrongerpolicysupportintheUS,earlyEVprogressin

afewemergingeconomieslikeIndia,ThailandandIndonesia,growingglobal

investmentin

charginginfrastructureandthe

batterysupplychain,andtechnologyinnovationslikesodium-ionbatteries.Astrongerpushis

stillneeded.

Heavytrucksinparticular

arefarbehindthe

net-zerotrajectoryandshouldbe

apriorityfocusforpolicy

makers.Gridinvestments,gridconnectionsandpermittingprocessesalso

needto

be

streamlinedto

supportthelargenumberofchargingpointsneededforthetransition.Table1:Roadtransport

segmentprogresstowardnet

zeroSegmentCurrentshareofroadtransportCurrentZero-emissionvehicle(ZEV)Level

ofpolicyinterventionestimated

fleetsharein2050

–

Economic

needed

tohitNetZeroScenarioCO2emissions

globalfleetsizeTransitionScenario(100%

ZEVshare)by

2050Three-wheeledvehicles<1%119

million95%OntrackTwo-wheeledvehicles5%1%1billion3.5million165

million1.3billion82million78%

Almoston

track:minoradditionalmeasuresneededMunicipalbuses87%

Almoston

track:minoradditionalmeasuresneededLight

commercialvehicles11%53%30%76%70%32%Positive

trajectory:moderateadditionalmeasuresneededPassenger

vehiclesPositive

trajectory:moderateadditionalmeasuresneededMedium+heavycommercialvehiclesNotontrack:strongadditionalmeasuresneededurgentlySource:BloombergNEF,variousgovernmentsources.Note:

Fleet

sizerepresentsvehiclesofalldrivetraintypesand

areestimatesbasedon

varioussourcesand

BNEFdata.Somevaluesrounded.Currentemissionsandfleetsizedataarefor2022.•Theshift

toelectrificationcreatesavery

largeeconomic

opportunity.

The

cumulativevalueofEV

salesacrossallsegmentshits$8.8trilliondollarsby2030and

$57

trillionby2050

intheEconomicTransitionScenario.Thisjumpstoover$88

trillionby

2050intheNetZeroScenario.EVs

andbatteriesarenowacentralpartof

manycountries’industrialpolicyand

competitionto

attractinvestmentis

likelytoincreasein

thecomingyears.Figure5:Cumulativeglobal

EVmarketopportunitybyregion

–

EconomicTransitionScenario2030204020509%16%3%2%22%31%35%$30.1

trillion21%43%3%21%$8.8trillion24%3%

$56.7

trillion3%20%21%22%IndiaChinaUS2

23E%1u%rope3%JapanOtherSource:BloombergNEF.Estimatesarecumulativespendingstartingin2023.Dollarsareinreal2022.Noportionofthisdocumentmaybereproduced,scannedintoanelectronicsystem,distributed,publiclydisplayedor

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applies

throughout.•Largeinvestmentsareneeded

inallareasofthe

batterysupplychain.

Annuallithium-batterydemandgrowsrapidly,

approaching5.7TWhannuallyby2035inourEconomicTransitionScenario.Meetingthisdemandrequires

largebutachievableincreasesinmaterials,componentsand

cellproduction.

Thereis

over7.4TWhof

nameplate

cellmanufacturingcapacityplannedby2025.Thisismore

thanprojecteddemandinthesameyear,

but

actualexcesssupplywillbelowerdueto

varyingutilizationrates,commissioningdelaysand

abandonments.Increasingly,governmentsandautomakersare

seekingto

localizetheirrespectivesupplychainsthroughanumber

ofpoliciesrangingfromdirectsubsidiestobattery‘passports’.Sustainedinvestment

willberequiredinthe

secondhalfof

thedecadeto

keepupwithdemand.At

least$188

billionneedsto

beinvestedinbatterycellandcomponentplantsbytheendof

the

decade.Figure6:Annualbattery

factoryinvestment

by

scenario$billion8058.96057.244.4SeparatorsElectrolytesCathodesAnodes4027.823.5200Batterycells20222023-302031-402023-302031-40ActualETS-yearlyNZS-yearlySource:BloombergNEF.Note:ETS=EconomicTransitionScenario.NZS

=NetZeroScenario.Batteryfactoryrequirements

includeinvestmentneededto

meetEVdemandas

wellas

stationaryenergystorage.UndertheNetZeroScenario,newdemandfor

lithium-ion

batteriesis

1.7timesthatof

ourEconomicTransitionScenario,reaching244TWhcumulativelyby

2050.

Thanksto

increasingreservesand

areductionin

usein

batteries,cobaltandnickel

reserves

are

now

enoughtosupplybothourEconomicTransitionand

NetZeroScenarios.Lithiumlooksmore

challengingand

currentlyknownreserveswouldbedepletedinourNetZeroScenarioevenwithrecycling.Newbatterychemistriesandreductionsin

packsizescanhelpoffsetthispressure.

Scalingnewresourcedevelopmentandrefiningcapacitywill

be

keyto

keepupwithdemandin

anygivenyear.Noportionofthisdocumentmaybereproduced,scannedintoanelectronicsystem,distributed,publiclydisplayedor

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applies

throughout.Figure7:Annualmetalsdemandfromlithium-ionbatteriesunder

theNet

ZeroScenarioMillion

metric

tons602022

vs

2050Cobalt3x29x22x26xManganesePhosphorusIron50403020100GraphiteNickel5x9xLithium22x12x16xAluminumCopper2020202520302035204020452050Source:BloombergNEF.Note:Lithiumis

expressedinmillionmetrictonslithiumcarbonateequivalent(LCE).Demandoccursat

theminemouth,oneyearbeforebatterydemand.

Multiplesbetween

2022and2050arebasedon

annualdemandinthegivenyear.•Oildemandfrom

roadtransportisverynearitspeak.Electricvehiclesofalltypesarealreadydisplacing1.5millionbarrels/dayof

oil

demand.Thisrisesdramaticallyin

the

yearsahead,leadingto

apeakin

overallroadfueldemandin

2027.Demandinthe

USand

Europehasalreadypeaked,

whiledemandinChinais

set

topeak

in2024.Globaloildemandfromtwo-wheelers,three-wheelers

andbuseshasalsoalreadypeakedand

demandfrompassengercarsisset

topeakin2025.Commercialvehiclestakelongerto

shiftas

heavytruckscontinuetorelyon

dieselto

moveboomingfreightdemand.Figure8:Globaloildemand–

EconomicTransitionScenario

Figure9:Oil

demandfromroadtransportbyscenarioMillionbarrelsperday120Million

barrels

per

day6010080604020050403020Peakdemand:2027:Roadtransport2027:Transport2029:GlobaloilOthersectorsOthertransportEconomic

TransitionScenario100RoadtransportNet

ZeroScenario2000201020202030204020502021203020402050Source:BloombergNEF.Note:Includesbiofuels.Source:BloombergNEF.Note:Includesbiofuels.IntheEconomicTransitionScenario,oildemandfromroadtransportdeclinesto

33.5millionb/din2040,some21%lowerthan2022levels.Fuelefficiencyimprovement

ofcombustionvehiclesandtheuptakeof

sharedmobilityalsoplayan

importantroleinreducingoildemand.Noportionofthisdocumentmaybereproduced,scannedintoanelectronicsystem,distributed,publiclydisplayedor

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applies

throughout.Thefallinoildemanddoes

not

necessarilymeanacollapseinoil

prices.Ifinvestmentsinnewsupplycapacityfallfasterthandemand,prices

couldremainelevatedandvolatile.TheNetZeroScenarioseesa

muchsharper

declineinoildemandenroutetoafullphase-outfromroadtransportin2050.•Additional

electricitydemandfromEVsis

partof

abroaderelectrificationpushtoreachnetzero.Globalelectricitydemandfromalltypesof

EVsincreasesfivetimesfrom210TWhin

2022to

1,027TWh

in2030intheEconomicTransitionScenario,beforeafurthertriplingindemandto

3,251TWhin

2040.EVsadd

about14%toglobalelectricitydemand

in2050

intheEconomicTransitionScenario,butonly12%

intheNetZeroScenariodespitemore

vehiclesontheroad.This

is

becausetheNet

Zero

Scenarioincludesadditionalelectricitydemandfromelectrificationofheating,industryandelectrolyzer

useforhydrogenproductionusedinother

sectors.

For

more,see

ourNewEnergyOutlook

(web|terminal).Insomefast-growingcountrieslikeIndiaEVs

addjust

9-10%to

totalelectricitydemand.Over$1

trillionin

cumulativeinvestmentin

EVcharginginfrastructureis

requiredgloballyoverthisperiod.Therearegrowingreasonsforoptimismthatthis

can

be

achieved,withsomecountriesnow

buildingchargersaheadoftherequiredpace.Therequiredchargerinvestmentisstillsmallcomparedtooverallautosales.

Forexample,Chinarequires$453billionofcumulativeinvestmentin

charginginfrastructureto

2040,comparedto

automotivesalesrevenuefromdomesticcar

salesandexportsof$750billionin

2022alone.Figure10:Electricitydemandoutlookforselectedregionsby

scenarioGlobalChinaUSETSNZSETSNZS10%ETSNZSTWh70,00060,00050,00040,00030,00020,00010,0000TWhTWh9,00018,00014%12%15,00012,0009,0006,0003,000013%14%6,0003,000020%20202050

2020Europe205020202050

2020Germany205020202050

2020India2050ETSNZSETSNZSETSNZSTWh8,000TWh1,500TWh8,0006,0004,0002,000018%10%13%6,0004,0002,00001,000500024%9%27%20202050

20202050202020502020205020202050

20202050GeneraldemandElectricvehicleelectricitydemandSource:BloombergNEF.Note:UsesgeneralelectricitydemandprojectionsfromBNEF’sNewEnergyOutlook2022.Thisisfinalenergyconsumptionandexcludesanylossesintransmission.Percentagesreferto

percentageof

EVelectricitydemandof

total

in2050.NetZeroScenario

includesadditionaldemandfromelectrificationof

heating,industry,andelectrolyzer

use

for

hydrogen.Noportionofthisdocumentmaybereproduced,scannedintoanelectronicsystem,distributed,publiclydisplayedor

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applies

throughout.•Thisyear’sEVOutlookincludesfive

newThematic

Highlights,eachofwhich

exploresadifferentpartof

the

transitionin

vehiclemarketsaroundthe

world.The

topicsare:–––EVpriceparityunderdifferentbatterypricescenariosWillaverageEV

rangeskeeprising?Emergingbatterytechnologies:sodium-ion

batteries,solid-statebatteries,

and

next-generationanodetechnologies––High-poweredchargingfortruckingfleetsTheimpactof

autonomousvehicles•EVpriceparityis

gettingcloserbutprogressvaries

bysegmentandcountry.

Pricesforlithium-ionbatteriesincreasedforthe

firsttimein2022and

arelikelyto

remainelevatedin2023.

Thisdelays

theupfrontprice

parityofbatteryelectricvehicleswithcombustioncars.Despitethenear-termincrease,EVsstillreachup-front

priceparitywithcomparablecombustionvehicles,withoutsubsidies,by

theendof

the

decadein

mostsegments.Even

inBNEF’sbase-casescenario

thereis

awidevariation

inpurchaseeconomics

betweengeographies,dictatedby

thedifferencesin

theaveragebatterysizeofBEVssoldor

howprice-sensitiveanygivencarmarketis.WhileelectricSUVs

inEuropestart

achievingpriceparityas

earlyas2025,BEVsin

the

samesegment

in

Indiadonot

hit

parityuntilafter2030,dueto

verylowaveragepurchasepricesinthesesegments.Larger

batteriesin

USelectriccarsmeanthatupfrontpriceparityin

thecountryisone

tothreeyearslaterthanforBEVsinEurope.Acceleratingbattery-packpricedeclines–usingan

18%

learningratescenario

–pushesupfront

priceparityof

EVsforwardby

an

averageofoneto

twoyears.Delayingitusinga16%learningratescenariowouldsettheindustrybackbyan

averageoftwoto

threeyears.

Ifpricesremainelevatedfor

longer,EVadoptionwillslow.Regardlessofthescenariodiscussed,regionaldifferencesremain,andthosewilldictatethe

paceof

electrificationandthetypeofBEVsadoptedin

eachregion.Figure11:Impactof

lithium-ionbattery

learningratescenarioson

year

ofpriceparitybetweenEVsandcombustionvehiclesbyregionandsegmentEuropeUSSmallSmallMediumLargeSUVMediumLargeSUV20202025203020352020202520302035Range16%lithium-ionbatterylearningrateBasecase18%lithium-ionbatterylearningrateSource:BloombergNEF.Note:Dotsrepresentyear

of

up-frontpriceparitywithoutsubsidies.Priceparityyearfor

base-caseoverlapswiththe16%learningratescenariofor

largeandSUVsegments

in

Europe,SUVin

US

andSUVinJapan.Noportionofthisdocumentmaybereproduced,scannedintoanelectronicsystem,distributed,publiclydisplayedor

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applies

throughout.•AverageEVrangesarerising

quickly,addingpressureto

thebatterysupplychain.Globally,BEV

modelslaunchedin

2022

had

an

averagerangeof337kilometers,

up

from230kmin2018.

Averagebatterypacksizeshaveincreased10%annuallyoverthisperiod,going

from40kWhto60kWh.Still,rangesremainbelow

consumerexpectationsin

mostmarketsand

segments,

promptingautomakerstolaunchlonger-range

modelsto

easerangeanxiety.Continuedimprovementsinbatteryandpowertraintechnologiescouldquicklypushrangeupto

consumer

expectations,whileimprovedcharger

densityand

chargingspeedcouldreducerangerequirementsinthelongterm.IncreasingBEVrangeswillfurtherboostdemandfor

lithium-ionbatteriesas

EVadoptionaccelerates,puttingmorepressureonthebatterymaterialssupply.AnannualBEVrangeincrease

of

5%inChina,theUS

andEurope

from2023to

2030

wouldadd

nearly50%moredemandforlithium,nickelandcobaltin

thosemarkets,comparedto

our

basecasescenariowhereBEVranges

remain

flat.ThiswouldalsopushoutthedateforEVpriceparity.

Wideadoptionofadvancedbatterytechnologiesandrecyclingcouldhelpmitigatematerialssupplyconstraintswhileenablingautomakerstodeliver

longBEVranges.

Governmentsshoulddirectinvestment

towardsupportingdensepublicchargingnetworksas

acost-effectivewaytohelpavoidan

EVrange‘armsrace’Figure12:Lithium-ion

batterydemandforpassengerBEVs

Figure13:Lithium

demandforpassengerBEVsin

China,inChina,the

USandEuropeby

batterypacksizescenariotheUSandEuropeby

batterypack

size

scenarioGWhThousand

metric

tons

LCE2,5005,000Base

casescenario4,0003,0002,0001,0000Basecasescenario2,0001,5001,000500GrowthscenarioGrowthscenarioDeclinescenarioDeclinescenarioHistoricalHistorical020222025203020352022202520302035Source:BloombergNEF.Note:Growthscenarioassumes5%

growthinaverageBEVrangefrom2023

to2030.

Declinescenarioassumes2%annualdeclinein

averagerangefrom2025onwards.

Includeslithiumcarbonateand

lithiumhydroxide.•Severalimportant

next-generationbatterytechnologiesareenteringthecommercializationphase.

Thesewilldrivefurtherperformanceand

costimprovements.Improvementsinbatteryenergydensityto

datehavebeendrivenbyadvancesin

cathodematerials,suchas

the

movetowardchemistrieswithhighernickelcontent.Next-generationtechnologiesincludingsiliconanodes,solid-statebatteriesandsodium-ionbatterieswill

bringfurther

improvementsin

performanceandcost.Theywillalsoshiftraw

materialsupplychains.

The

nextgenerationanodetechnologiesinourbasecasedisplace46%of

graphite

in2035

comparedwithan

all-graphitescenario.Similarly,inour

basecasesodium-ioncellsdisplace7%of

lithiumdemandin2035,comparedto

anosodium-ion

scenario.However,inthecaseof

solid-statebatteries,BNEFestimatesthat45%to130%

morelithiumwouldbeneededon

abattery-celllevelif

thesolid-stateelectrolytewereto

substituteboththeliquidelectrolyteand

separator.

Solidelectrolytescontainmorelithiumdueto

sl