新世纪研究生公共英语教材B-11-13单元

B:第九单元AnimalEmotionsLauraTangleySheerjoy.Romanticlove.Thepainofmourning.

Scientistssaypetsandwildcreatureshavefeelings,too.1.SwimmingoffthecoastofArgentina,afemalerightwhalesinglesoutjustoneofthesuitorsthatarehotlypursuingher.Aftermating,thetwocetaceanslingersidebyside,strokingoneanotherwiththeirflippersandfinallyrollingtogetherinwhatlookslikeanembrace.Thewhalesthendepart,flipperstouching,andswimslowlysidebyside,divingandsurfacinginperfectunisonuntiltheydisappearfromsight.2.InTanzania,primatologistsstudyingchimpanzeebehaviorrecordedthedeathofFlo,atroop’s50-year-oldmatriarch.Throughoutthefollowingday,Flo’sson,Flint,sitsbesidehismother’slifelessbody,occasionallytakingherhandandwhimpering.Overthenextfewweeks,Flintgrowsincreasinglylistless,withdrawingfromthetroop—despitehissiblings’effortstobringhimback–andrefusingfood.ThreeweeksafterFlo’sdeath,theformerlyhealthyyoungchimpisdead,too.3.Agrief-strickenchimpanzee?Leviathansinlove?Mostpeople,raisedonDisneyversionsofsentientandpassionatebeasts,wouldsaythatthesetales,bothtrue,simplyconfirmtheirsuspicionsthatanimalscanfeelintense,humanlikeemotions.Fortheirpart,thenation’s61millionpetownersneednoconvincingatallthatpetdogsandcatscanfeelangry,morose,elated—evenjealousorembarrassed.Recentstudies,infieldsasdistantasethologyandneurobiology,aresupportingthispopularbelief.Otherevidenceismerelyanecdotal,especiallyforpets—dogsthatbecomedepressed,orevendie,afterlosingabelovedcompanion,forinstance.Buttheanecdote—orcasestudyinscientificparlance—hasnowachievedsomerespectabilityamongresearcherswhostudyanimalbehavior.AsUniversityofColoradobiologistMarcBekoffsays,“Thepluralofanecdoteisdata.”4.Still,theideaofanimalsfeelingemotionsremainscontroversialamongmanyscientists.Researchers’skepticismisfueledinpartbytheirprofessionalaversiontoanthropomorphism,theverynonscientifictendencytoattributehumanqualitiestonon-humans.Manyscientistsalsosaythatitisimpossibletoproveanimalshaveemotionsusingstandardscientificmethods—repeatableobservationsthatcanbemanipulatedincontrolledexperiments—leadingthemtoconcludethatsuchfeelingsmustnotexist.Today,however,amidmountingevidencetothecontrary,“thetideisturningradicallyandrapidly,”saysBekoff,whoisattheforefrontofthismovement.5.Eventhemoststridentskepticsofanimalpassionagreethatmanycreaturesexperiencefear—whichsomescientistsdefineasa“primary”emotionthatcontrastswith“secondary”emotionssuchasloveandgrief.Unlikethesemorecomplexfeelings,fearisinstinctive,theysay,andrequiresnoconsciousthought.Essentialtoescapepredatorsandotherdangers,fear—anditspredictableflight,fight,orfreezeresponses—seemstobehard-wiredintomanyspecies.Younggeesethathaveneverbeforeseenapredator,forexample,willrunforcoverifahawk-shapedsilhouettepassesoverhead.Theshapeofanonpredatorybird,ontheotherhand,elicitsnosuchresponse.6.Butbeyondsuchinstinctualemotionsandtheirpredictablebehavioralresponses,thepossibilityofmorecomplexanimalfeelings—thosethatentailmentalprocessing—isdifficulttodemonstrate.“Ican’tevenprovethatanotherhumanbeingisfeelinghappyorsad,”saysBekoff,“butIcandeducehowthey’refeelingthroughbodylanguageandfacialexpression.”Asascientistwhohasconductedfieldstudiesofcoyotes,foxes,andothercaninesforthepastthreedecades,Bekoffalsobelieveshecanaccuratelytellwhattheseanimalsarefeelingbyobservingtheirbehavior.Headdsthatanimalemotionsmayactuallybemoreknowablethanthoseofhumans,becausetheydon’t“filter”theirfeelingsthewaywedo.7.Yetbecausefeelingsareintangible,andsotoughtostudyscientifically,“mostresearchersdon’tevenwanttotalkaboutanimalemotions,”saysJaakPanksepp,aneuroscientistatBowlingGreenStateUniversityinOhioandauthorofAffectiveNeuroscience.Withinhisfield,Pankseppisarareexception,whobelievesthatsimilaritiesbetweenthebrainsofhumansandotheranimalssuggestthatatleastsomecreatureshavetruefeelings.“Imaginewherewe’dbeinphysicsifwehadn’tinferredwhat’sinsidetheatom,”saysPanksepp.“Mostofwhatgoesoninnatureisinvisible,yetwedon’tdenythatitexists.”8.Thenewcaseforanimalemotionscomesinpartfromthegrowingacceptabilityoffieldobservations,particularlywhentheyaretakeninaggregate.Thelatestcontributiontothisbodyofknowledgeisanewbook,TheSmileofaDolphin,whichpresentspersonalreportsfrommorethan50researcherswhohavespenttheircareersstudyinganimals—fromcats,dogs,bears,andchimpstobirds,iguanas,andfish.EditedbyBekoff,whosaysitwillfinally“legitimize”researchonanimalemotions,thevolumehasalreadygarneredscientificattention,includingaSmithsonianInstitutionsymposiumonthesubject.9.Oneofthemostobviousanimalemotionsispleasure.Anyonewhohaseverheldapurringcatorbeengreetedbyabounding,barking,tail-waggingdogknowsthatanimalsoftenappeartobehappy.Beastlyjoyseemsparticularlyapparentwhentheanimalsareplayingwithoneanotherorsometimes,inthecaseofpets,withpeople.10.Virtuallyallyoungmammals,aswellassomebirds,play,asdoadultsofmanyspeciessuchasourown.Youngdolphins,forinstance,routinelychaseeachotherthroughthewaterlikefrolicsomepuppiesandhavebeenobservedridingthewakesofboatslikesurfers.PrimatologistJaneGoodall,whohasstudiedchimpanzeesinTanzaniaforfourdecades,saysthatchimps“chase,somersault,andpirouettearoundoneanotherwiththeabandonofchildren.”InColorado,Bekoffoncewatchedanelkracebackandforthacrossapatchofsnow—eventhoughtherewasplentyofbaregrassnearby—leapingandtwistingitsbodyinmidaironeachpass.Thoughrecentresearchsuggeststhatplaymayhelpyoungstersdevelopskillsneededinadulthood,Bekoffsaysthere’snoquestionthatit’salsofun.“Animalsatplayaresymbolsoftheunfetteredjoyoflife,”hesays11.Griefalsoseemstobecommoninthewild,particularlyfollowingthedeathofamate,parent,offspring,orevenclosecompanion.Femalesealionswitnessingtheirpupsbeingeatenbykillerwhalesareknowntoactuallywail.Whenagoose,whichmatesforlife,losesitspartner,thebird’sheadandbodydroopdejectedly.Goodall,whosawtheyoungchimpFlintstarveafterhismotherdied,maintainsthattheanimal“diedofgrief.”12.Elephantsmaybenature’sbest-knownmourners.Scientistsstudyingthesebehemothshavereportedcountlesscasesofelephantstryingtorevivedeadordyingfamilymembers,aswellasstandingquietlybesideananimal’sremainsformanydays,periodicallyreachingoutandtouchingthebodywiththeirtrunks.KenyanbiologistJoycePoole,whohasstudiedAfricanelephantssince1976,saystheseanimals’behaviortowardtheirdead“leavesmewithlittledoubtthattheyexperiencedeepemotionsandhavesomeunderstandingaboutdeath.”13.Butthere’s“hard”scientificevidenceforanimalfeelingsaswell.Scientistswhostudythebiologyofemotions,afieldstillinitsinfancy,arediscoveringmanysimilaritiesbetweenthebrainsofhumansandotheranimals.Inanimalsstudiedsofar,includinghumans,emotionsseemtoarisefromancientpartsofthebrainthatarelocatedbelowthecortex,regionsthathavebeenconservedacrossmanyspeciesthroughoutevolution.14.Themostimportantemotionalsiteidentifiedsofaristheamygdala,analmond-shapestructureinthecenterofthebrain.Workingwithrats,neuroscientistshavediscoveredthatstimulatingacertainpartoftheamygdalainducesastateofintensefear.Ratswithdamagedamygdalas,ontheotherhand,donotshownormalbehavioralresponsestodanger(suchasfreezingorrunning)orthephysiologicalchangesassociatedwithfear—higherheartrateandbloodpressure,forexample.15.Inhumans,brain-imagingstudiesshowthatwhenpeopleexperiencefear,theiramygdalas,too,areactivated.Andjustliketherats,peoplewhoseamygdalasaredamagedbyaccidentordiseaseseemunabletobeafraidwhenthesituationwarrantsit.Inhumansandrats,atleast,amygdalasare“basicallywiredthesameway,”saysNewYorkUniversityneuroscientistJosephLeDoux,whoselabconductedmuchoftheratresearch.Headdsthatbeyondfear,“theevidenceislessclear,buttheamygdalaisimplicatedinotheremotionsaswell.”16.Thecaseforanimalemotionsisalsobolsteredbyrecentstudiesofbrainchemistry.StevenSiviy,abehavioralneuroscientistatGettysburgCollegeinPennsylvania,hasfoundthatwhenratsplay,theirbrainsreleasecopiousamountsofdopamine,aneurochemicalthatisassociatedwithpleasureandexcitementinhumans.Inoneexperiment,Siviyplacedpairsofratsinadistinctiveplexiglasschamberandallowedthemtoplay.Afteraweek,hecouldputoneanimalaloneinthechamberand,anticipatingitsupcomingplaysession,itwouldbecome“veryactive,vocalizing,andpacingbackandforthwithexcitement.”ButwhenSiviygavethesameanimaladrugthatblocksdopamine,allsuchactivitycametoahalt.NeuroscientistPanksepphasfoundevidencethatratsatplayalsoproduceopiates–chemicalsthat,likedopamine,arethoughttobeinvolvedwithpleasureinpeople.17.Anotherchemical,thehormoneoxytocin,isassociatedwithbothsexualactivityandmaternalbondinginpeople.Itisreleased,forexample,whenmothersarenursingtheirinfants.Nowitlooksasthoughthesamehormoneaffectsattachmentamonganimals,atleastinthecaseofamouselikerodentcalledtheprairievole.Toinvestigateoxytocin’sroleinsocialbonding,UniversityofMarylandneuroscientistC.SueCartertargetedthevolebecauseitisoneofthefewmammalspeciesknowntobemonogamous.Shefoundthatfemales,whonormallyspendaboutadayselectingamatefromapoolofeagermales,willchooseonewithinanhour—oftenthefirstmaletheysee—iftheyhavefirstreceivedaninjectionofoxytocin.Volesgivenadrugthatblocksoxytocin,however,willnotselectamate,nomatterhowmuchtimetheyhave.Carterconcludesthatpairbondinginvolesreliesatleastinpartonoxytocin,whichproducesbehaviorthatlooksmuchlikepeoplewhoare“fallinginlove.”18.Butisitlove,really?BerndWelsig,theTexasA&MUniversitybiologistwhoobservedamorousrightwhalesoffthecoastofArgentina,believesthat,asascientist,“Ishouldprobablycallthiseventamereexampleofan‘alternativematingstrategy.’“ButWelsigstillentertainsthepossibilitythatthecetaceansbehavedthewaytheydidbecause“theywerethe‘right’rightwhalesforeachother.”19.Skepticsremainunconvinced.“Awhalemaybehaveasifit’sinlove,butyoucan’tprovewhatit’sfeeling,ifanything,”saysneuroscientistLeDoux,authorofTheEmotionalBrain.Hemaintainsthatthequestionoffeelingsboilsdowntowhetherornotanimalsareconscious.Andthoughanimals“mayhavesnapshotsofself-awareness,”hesays,“themoviewecallconsciousnessisnotthere.”RichardDavidson,aneuroscientistattheUniversityofWisconsin-Madison,agreesthathigherprimates,includingapesandchimps,aretheonlyanimalsthathavedemonstratedself-consciousnesssofar.Still,hebelievesthatthereareothercreaturesthat“mayatleasthaveantecedentsoffeelings.”20.Orprobablymore,sayBekoffandhiscolleagues.Theirmostconvincingargument,perhaps,comesfromthetheoryofevolution,widelyacceptedbybiologistsofallstripes.Citingsimilaritiesinthebrainanatomyandchemistryofhumansandotheranimals,neuroscientistSiviyasks:“Ifyoubelieveinevolutionbynaturalselection,howcanyoubelievethatfeelingssuddenlyappeared,outoftheblue,withhumanbeings?”Goodallsaysscientistswhouseanimalstostudythehumanbrain,thendenythatanimalshavefeelings,are“illogical.”21.Intheend,whatdifferencedoesitreallymake?Accordingtomanyscientists,resolvingthedebateoveranimalemotionscouldturnouttobemuchmorethananintellectualexercise.Ifanimalsdoindeedexperienceawiderangeoffeelings,ithasprofoundimplicationsforhowhumansandanimalswillinteractinthefuture.Bekoff,forone,hopesthatgreaterunderstandingofwhatanimalsarefeelingwillspurmorestringentrulesonhowanimalsshouldbetreated,everywherefromzoosandcircusestofarmsandbackyards.22.Butifthereiscontinuitybetweentheemotionallivesofhumansandotheranimals,whereshouldscientistsdrawtheline?MichelCabanac,aphysiologistatLavalUniversityinQuebec,believesthatconsciousnessarosewhenanimalsbegantoexperiencephysicalpleasureanddispleasure.Inexperimentswithiguanas,hediscoveredthattheanimalsshowphysiologicalchangesthatareassociatedwithpleasureinmammals—ariseinbodytemperatureandheartrate—whereasfrogsandfishdonot.Heproposesthatemotionsevolvedsomewherebetweenthefirstamphibiansandreptiles.Yetevenenthusiastsdon’tascribeemotionstotheverybottomendofthefoodchain.SaysBekoff:“We’renotgoingtotalkaboutjealousspongesandembarrassedmosquitoes.”

动物的情感劳拉·坦利非常的开心。浪漫的爱情。悲恸的哀悼。科学家说宠物和野生动物也有情感。1.一只在阿根廷海岸附近的水域中游动的露脊鲸，在众多热烈追求她的求偶者中只选出一名幸运儿。“完婚”之后，两头露脊鲸并排在水中徜徉，它们用鳍肢相互抚摩，最后又一起在水中滚动，看上去就像在互相拥抱。然后，两头露脊鲸开始游向远方，鳍肢相互触摸，慢慢并排游动，一会潜入水中，一会又浮出水面，它们动作完美和谐，直至最终在视线中消失。2.在坦桑尼亚，致力于研究黑猩猩行为的灵长类动物学家记录了一个黑猩猩群落中享年50岁的“女族长”弗洛死后发生的一些事情。弗洛的儿子弗林特第二天一整天都坐在母亲的尸体旁边，有时还会抓住她的手发出几声呜咽。在此后的几个星期里，弗林特的情绪越来越低落，他离群索居并且不再进食，尽管他的兄弟姐妹设法想让他回到群体中来。终于，在弗洛死后的第3个星期，原本年轻健康的黑猩猩弗林特也死了。3.悲伤过度的黑猩猩？坠入情网的海洋巨兽？很多人，由于深受迪斯尼卡通片中感性多情的动物形象的影响，会说这两个真实的故事更加证实了他们认为动物有人类般强烈情感的看法。从他们的角度来看，全国六千一百万拥有宠物的人完全不需要提供什么证据来证实宠物狗和宠物猫会生气、郁闷、得意洋洋——甚至会嫉妒或困窘。最近在动物行为学和神经生物学之类的边缘学科的研究证实了这种普遍看法。其他的证据只是些轶事趣闻，特别是一些有关宠物的事，例如狗会在失去心爱的同伴后，变得沮丧，甚至死去。但是轶事趣闻——或用科学的术语称之为案例研究——现在已经获得了研究动物行为的研究人员的重视。正如科罗拉多大学的生物学家马克·贝科夫所说：“大量的轶事趣闻就是数据。”4.但是，许多科学家仍然对动物也有情感的观点持有异议。研究人员之所以会表示疑心，局部原因是他们出于职业习惯讨厌拟人论，因为他们认为这是一种将人类的特性强加在非人类生物身上的毫无科学根据的主观倾向。许多科学家还认为用标准的科学方法〔在受控实验环境下可进行重复观察〕是无法证明动物是有情感的——这使他们得出结论，认为这些所谓的动物情感一定不存在。但是动物情感论的积极倡导者贝科夫指出，如今面对越来越多的相反证据，“这场运动的潮流正在根本性地迅速转向”。5.甚至连那些对动物情感论持绝对疑心态度的人也成认，许多动物有恐惧感——一些科学家认为，恐惧是与爱和悲伤等“中级”情感相对的“初级”情感。他们认为，与较为复杂的“中级”情感相比，恐惧是一种本能，它不需要任何有意识的思维。恐惧及其可以预见的逃跑、搏斗或者呆住不动的反响，是逃避食肉动物和其他危险所必需的，它看起来好似是许多动物与生俱来的本领。例如，以前从未见过食肉动物的小鹅如果看到形状像老鹰一样的黑影从头顶掠过就会马上跑去寻找藏身处。而另一方面，非食肉鸟的形状就不会引发这样的反响。6.但是，除了这些具有本能性质的情感及其可以预见的行为反响之外，科学家很难证明动物可能拥有更为复杂的情感，即那些必需有心理活动过程的情感。贝科夫说：“我甚至不能证实另一个人是快乐还是悲伤，但我可以通过肢体语言和脸部表情推论出他〔们〕的情感。”作为对丛林狼、狐狸及其他犬科动物进行长达30年实地研究的科学家，贝科夫还认为自己可以通过观察这些动物的行为准确地说出他们的感受。他又指出，了解动物的感情事实上可能比了解人类的感情更容易，因为它们不会像人类那样对情感进行“过滤”。7.但是《情感神经学》一书的作者、俄亥俄州立堡林·格林大学神经学学家雅克·潘克塞普指出，因为感情是一种无形的东西，而且很难用科学手段进行研究，“所以大多数研究人员甚至不愿意谈论动物情感问题”。而潘克塞普在他的研究领域里是一个非常少见的例外，他认为，人类大脑和其他动物大脑之间的相似之处说明，至少某些动物拥有真正的感情。潘克塞普说：“想象一下，如果我们没有推测出原子中的物质，那我们的物理学会是什么样的。在自然中大局部事物的进展是看不见的，然而我们并不否认它的存在。”8.对动物情感的接受之所以会出现新的局面，局部原因是有越来越多的人愿意接受研究人员取得的实地观察结果，特别是当从总体角度看待这些结果时。一本名为《海豚的微笑》的新书为增加动物情感方面的知识做出了新的奉献，该书收录了50多名研究人员撰写的个人报告。这些研究人员将自己的整个职业生涯都倾注在对猫、狗、熊、黑猩猩、鸟、鬣蜥和鱼等动物的研究。该书的编辑贝科夫认为，这本书最终会使动物情感的研究变得“合法”。而这本新书也确实引起了科学界的关注——其中，史密森氏学会就举行了一次以动物情感为主题的研讨会。9.动物最显而易见的情感之一就是快乐。养过会发出咕噜声的小猫，或者受到过边跳边叫、摇着尾巴的小狗欢送的人，就知道动物看起来常常十分快乐。动物相互嬉戏的时候，或有时跟人一起玩耍时〔就宠物而言〕，它们的快乐好似会变得特别明显。10.事实上，所有幼小的哺乳动物和某些鸟类都会嬉戏玩耍，正如很多种类的成年动物一样，包括人类也是如此。例如，小海豚就像爱闹着玩的小狗，常常在水中互相追逐。人们常常看到它们像冲浪运发动般追逐在船后的浪花上。灵长类动物学家简·古多尔曾经在坦桑尼亚对黑猩猩进行了40年的研究，他说黑猩猩会“孩子般尽情地追逐、翻跟头、踮着脚尖相互旋转”。有一次，贝科夫在科罗拉多观察到一只麋鹿来来回回地跑着穿越一小块雪地，尽管边上就有无雪的草地。它每次跨跃都要跳起来并在半空扭动着躯体。贝科夫说虽然近来的研究说明嬉戏玩耍会帮助小动物培养成年所需要的技巧，而毫无疑问的是，它也会带来快乐。他还说：“玩耍的动物是无拘无束生活快乐的象征。”11.在野生动物中，悲伤似乎也很常见，尤其是在失去了配偶、双亲、幼崽，甚至是亲密同伴的时候。比方，当母海狮目击了自己的小海狮被逆戟鲸吃掉时，会发出哀号。一生只有一个配偶的天鹅失去配偶时，会沮丧地垂着头和身体。古多尔亲眼看到小黑猩猩弗林特在母亲死后饿死，他坚持说小黑猩猩是“死于悲伤”。12.大象可能是大自然最著名的哀悼者了。研究这些庞然大物的科学家的报告中有大量的事实陈述了大象试图使死去的或将要死去的家庭成员复活，还会很多天静静地站在尸体旁，不时地伸出长鼻触动一下尸体。肯尼亚生物学家乔伊斯·普尔从1976年以来就研究非洲大象，他说，这些动物对待死去的动物的行为“让我几乎毫不疑心地认为，它们体验着深切的感情并对死亡有所理解。”13.有一些“确凿的”科学证据也可以证明动物有感情。致力于情感生物学〔一个新生的科学领域〕研究的科学家发现，人脑与其它动物的大脑之间存在着许多相似之处。科学家在到目前为止对动物〔包括人类〕的研究发现，情感看起来好似是在大脑一些较为“古老”的区域中产生的，这些区域位于大脑皮层以下，它们在许多物种的进化过程中都得以保存下来。14.目前已经被科学家识别出来的最重要的情感区域，是大脑中的扁桃体，这是一个位于大脑中央的杏仁状结构。神经科学家通过在老鼠身上进行的实验，发现刺激扁桃体某个特定的局部会导致实验鼠处于一种极度恐惧的状态。在另一方面，扁桃体遭到破坏的实验鼠在遇到危险时，既不会表现出正常的行为反响〔比方呆住或者逃跑〕，也不会出现与恐惧联系在一起的生理变化——如心跳加快和血压升高。15.利用成像技术对人脑进行的研究说明，当人类感到恐惧时，大脑中的扁桃核也会被激活。与实验鼠一样，由于意外事故或疾病而导致扁桃核受损的人似乎在面对危险时也无法感到恐惧。在实验室进行了大量鼠类研究的纽约大学神经学学家约瑟夫·勒杜指出，至少人类和老鼠的扁桃核“根本上采用了相同的‘布线方式’”。他又补充说，除恐惧外，“有证据说明，扁桃核与其他情感也有关系，但是这些证据不像证明扁桃核与恐惧有关的证据那样明确。”16.动物情感论还得到了最近进行的大脑化学研究的支持。宾夕法尼亚葛底斯堡学院行为神经科学家史蒂文·西维发现，老鼠在玩耍的时候，它的大脑会释放出大量的多巴胺——人类的快乐和兴奋等情感就与这种神经化学物质有关。在一项实验中，西维把一对对的实验鼠放在了特殊的树脂玻璃“房子”中，然后让它们尽情玩耍。一星期后，他又把一只实验鼠单独放在“房子”里，期待着马上就可以再好好地玩上一段时间的实验鼠变得“非常活泼，它不断地发出叫声并且兴奋地来回跑动”。但是当西维给这只实验鼠喂食了一种抑制多巴胺的药物以后，所有的此类活动都全部停止了。神经科学家潘克塞普已经找到证据证明，老鼠在玩耍的过程中体内还会产生多种鸦片剂——科学家认为这些化学物质与多巴胺一样，也与人类的快乐情绪有关。17.另一种化学物质荷尔蒙催产素与人类的性活动和母性有关。例如，母亲培育婴儿时体内就会释放出催产素。现在看来这种激素好似对动物之间的相互依恋也有影响，至少在一种与老鼠十分相似的啮齿类动物草原田鼠身上是这样。为了研究催产素对社会依附关系的作用，马里兰大学神经科学家C·休·卡特选择了草原田鼠作为她的研究对象，因为草原田鼠是人们的实行“一夫一妻制”的为数不多的几种哺乳动物之一。她发现母鼠一般会花一天的时间从一群热切的公鼠中挑选出一只配偶，但是如果它们在选择配偶之前注射了催产素的话，母鼠的择偶时间就会缩短为一小时——而且常常会选择它们看见的第一只公鼠。然而，如果母鼠服食了催产素抑制药物，那么不管有多少时间它们也不会选择配偶。卡特由此得出结论认为，雌雄田鼠之间亲密关系的形成至少局部原因是催产素，这种激素可以导致田鼠做出与“坠入爱河”的人非常相似的举动。18.但这真是爱情吗？曾经对生活在阿根廷附近海域的“多情”露脊鲸进行过观察的得克萨斯农业和机械大学生物学家贝恩德·伍尔西格指出，作为一名科学家，“我很可能应该将露脊鲸的行为仅仅称作是“选择性的交配策略”的一个例子”。但是他仍然认为，露脊鲸之所以会有这种行为表现也有可能是因为“它们相互之间‘情投意合’”。19．对动物情感论持疑心态度的人仍然坚持自己的看法。《情感大脑》一书的作者，神经科学家勒杜指出：“鲸也许会做出好似他们正在恋爱的举动，但是你无法证明它的内心感受，即使鲸有这种感受的话。”他认为动物情感问题归根到底就是动物是否有意识的问题。他说，虽然动物“会有点滴的自我意识，但是我们所称的意识图像是没有的。”威斯康星大学麦迪逊分校的神经科学家理查德·戴维森认为，类人猿和黑猩猩等比拟高级的灵长类动物是迄今为止唯一已经说明出自我意识的动物。但是，他仍然认为还有其他一些动物“也许至少拥有情感的前身”。20．贝科夫和他的同事认为可能还不止如此。他们最令人信服的论点也许是从已经为各学派的生物学家所普遍接受的进化论中推导出来的。神经科学家西维根据人脑与其他动物大脑在解剖结构和化学构成方面存在的相似之处提出了这样一个问题：“如果你认为生物可以通过自然选择不断进化，那你怎么能够相信人类在进化的过程中其情感是突如其来的呢？”古多尔认为，那些先通过动物来研究人类的大脑，然后又否认动物有感情的科学家的想法是“不合逻辑的”。21．最后，动物有没有情感到底有什么重要性呢？许多科学家认为解决动物情感争论的意义也许远比一种学术活动重要得多。如果动物确实有各种各样的情感，那么它将对人与动物今后会怎样互动产生意义深远的影响。举例来说，贝科夫就希望对动物的感情了解更多能促使人类在对待动物〔不管是在动物园和马戏团还是在农场和后院〕上有更严厉的规定。22．但是，如果人类和其他动物的感情生活之间存在着延续性，那么科学家应该把人与动物的分界线划在什么地方呢？魁北克拉瓦尔大学生理学家米歇尔·卡巴纳克认为，当动物开始体验身上的快乐和不快时，意识就产生了。在以鬣蜥为研究对象的实验中，他发现这种动物表现出哺乳动物快乐时的生理变化——体温升高和心跳加快——但是青蛙和鱼却没有类似的变化。他提出，情感的进化发生在第一批两栖动物与爬行动物出现之间的某个时期。但即使是非常热衷于动物情感的人，也不会把情感与处于食物链最末端的生物联系起来。贝科夫指出：“我们不会谈论嫉妒的海绵和为难的蚊子。”

B：第十二单元TechnologyRemakestheSchoolsHowardGardnerTechnologyhasrevolutionizedtheworldinwhichschoolsoperate.Nowit’stimeforeducatorstocatchuptochange.1.Ahumanbeingmiraculouslytransportedfrom1900toourtimewouldrecognizemuchofwhatgoesonintoday’sclassrooms—theprevalentlecturing,theemphasisondrill,thedecontextualizedmaterialsandactivitiesrangingfrombanalreaderstoweeklyspellingtests.Withthepossibleexceptionofthechurch,fewinstitutionshavechangedaslittleinfundamentalwaysasthosechargedwiththeformaleducationofthenextgeneration.2.Contrastthiscontinuitywithchildren’sexperiencesoutsidetheschoolwalls.Inmodernsocietychildrenhaveaccesstoarangeofmediathatwouldhaveseemedmiraculousinanearlierera(andthatstillastonishesmembersoflessindustrializedsocieties):television,cellularphones,personalcomputerswithCD-ROMs,faxmachines,videodiscs,personalstereos,andstillandvideocameras.3.Thevisitorfromthepastwhowouldreadilyrecognizetoday’sclassroomwouldhavetroublerelatingtotheout-of-schoolworldofamodern10-year-old.IconfessthatIoftenexperiencesuchdifficultiesmyself.4.Schools—ifnoteducationgenerally—areinherentlyconservativeinstitutions.Inlargemeasure,Iwoulddefendthisconservatism.Butchangesinourworldaresorapidandsodecisivethatitwillnotbepossibleforschoolstoremainastheywereorsimplytointroduceafewsuperficialadjustments.Indeed,ifschoolsdonotchangerapidlyandradically,theyarelikelytobereplacedbyother,moreresponsive(thoughperhapslesscomfortableandlesslegitimate)institutions.5.Themostimportanttechnologicaleventofourtimeistheascendancyofthecomputer.Computersalreadyplayaprominentroleinmanyaspectsofourlives,fromtransportationcommunicationtopersonalbookkeepingandentertainment.Scarcelyoblivioustothesetrends,manyschoolsnowhavecomputersandnetworkingcapabilities.Tosomeextent,thesetechnologicalappurtenanceshavebeenabsorbedintothelifeoftheschool,thoughoftentheysimplydelivertheoldlessonsinamoreconvenientandefficientformat.6.Inthefuture,however,educationwillbeorganizedlargelyaroundthecomputer.Computerswillpermitadegreeofindividualization—personalizedcoachingortutoring—whichinthepastwasavailableonlytotherich.Allstudentsmayreceiveacurriculumtailoredtotheirneeds,learningstyle,paceandprofileofmastery,andrecordofsuccesswithearliermaterialsandlessons.Indeed,computertechnologypermitsustorealize,forthefirsttime,progressiveeducationalideasof“personalization”and“active,hands-onlearning”forstudentsallovertheworld.7.Computertechnologyputsalltheinformationintheworldatone’sfingertips,quiteliterally.Thisisbothablessingandacurse.Nolongerdowehavetospendlongperiodsoftimehuntingdownasourceoraperson—thesecanbefoundinstantaneously.SoonwewillnotevenhavetotypeinaninstructioninordertolearnthecapitalofMontana,thepopulationofKorea,orOhm’slaw;wewillbeabletosimplyaskaquestionoutloudandthecomputerwillprintoutorspeaktheanswer.Thuspeoplewillachieveinstant“culturalliteracy”.8.Lesshappily,theinternethasnomeansofqualitycontrol;“anyonecanplay”.Informationanddisinformationcomminglecomfortablyand,asofyet,therearenoreliablewaystodistinguishsensefromdistortionsanddownrightnonsenseontheNet.EthnographerSherryTurkletellsabouttheyoungchildwhoinsiststhat“therearealwaysriotswhentaxesgoup”becausethatisthecommonwisdomembeddedinthewidelyavailablegameprogram,SimCity.Identifyingthetrue,thebeautiful,andthegood—andwhichofthesetruths,beauties,orgoodsareworthknowing—constitutesaformidablechallenge.9.Itmightbesaid,inresponse,thattheworldhasalwaysbeenfilledwithmisinformation.Trueenough,butinthepasteducationalauthoritiescouldatleastchoosetheirfavoritetexts(andproscribeothers).Today’ssituation,witheveryonehavinginstantaccesstomillionsofsources,isunprecedented.10.Artificialintelligenceandvirtualrealityaretwocomputer-relatedtechnologiesthatmaycastalargeshadowoneducation.Muchofschoolplanningmaybedonenotbyhumanagentsbutbyprogramscreatedbyhumanagents;andmuchofwhatwasonceaccomplishedbytextbooksandoccasionalfieldtripswillnowbeperformedinvirtualreality.Onecanask:whatisthetruthvalueofmaterialspreparedentirelybynonhumanentities?11.Inaturnaboutfromprevioustrends,theacquisitionofcredentialsfromaccreditedinstitutionsmaybecomelessimportant.Individualswillbeabletoeducatethemselves(largelyifnotwholly)andtoexhibittheirmasteryinasimulatedsetting.Whypay$120,000togotolawschool,ifonecan“readlaw”asinearliertimesandthendemonstrateone’slegalskillsviacomputersimulation?Orlearntoflyaplaneorconductneurosurgerybysimilarmeans,forthatmatter?12.Muchofeducationinthepastwascalibratedtomakesurethatindividualscouldcarryoutaregularjob,reliably,throughouttheirproductiveadultyears.Nowadays,thisassumptionisdoublyflawed.First,almosteverythingthatcanbehandledalgorithmicallywillbecarriedoutbyautomata.Second,fewpeoplewillremaininthesameoccupationalnichefortheirwholelives;manywillmovefrequently(eithervoluntarilyorbynecessity)fromoneniche,company,andsectoroftheeconomytoanother.13.Theexplosionofnewandrapidlychangingrolesintheworkplacecomplicateseducationinunprecedentedways.Mostadultteachersandparentswillnothaveexperiencesonwhichtheycandrawtoprepareyoungstersforaworldinwhichtheycanexpecttochangejobsregularly.Intheabsenceofprecedent,youthswillhavetopreparethemselvesforrapidlychanging“careerpaths”andlifesituations.14.Whilecomputer-basedteachingandcurriculafiguretobethedominanttechnologicalinfluenceoneducation,otherinnovationswillhaveimpactsaswell.Imagingtechnologieswillpermitstudyofstudents’brainactivityandbloodflowastheyengageinvariouskindsofproblem-solvingorcreativeactivities.Nolongerrestrictedtoresearch,thesefindingsaboutastudent’s“mentallife”arelikelytoinfluencepedagogicalapproachesaswellashisorherplacementinspecialormainstreameducationalsettings.15.Enhancedunderstandingofthegeneticbasisoflearningandofvarioustalentsisalsolikelytointrudeontheclassroom.Itmaybepossibletodeterminewhichyoungstersarelikelytoadvancequicklyandwhichonesseemdoomedto“uphill”schoolexperiences;someauthoritieswillinsistthatthesefindingsbeappliedinspecificcases,whileotherswillstrenuouslyobjecttoanydecisionsmadeonthebasisofgeneticinformation.Drugsthatpurporttoimprovelearning,memory,ormotivationwillbecomereadilyavailable.Teachersandparentsmayfaceethicaldilemmasthatwouldinearliertimeshavebeenrestrictedtosciencefiction.16.Finally,recentbreakthroughsinbiologyandmedicinemaychangeeducationinthemostradicalways.Ifindividualsseekto“design”offspringthroughgeneticengineering,ortoalterthegeneticendowmentofanalreadyexistingperson,orifhumancloningbecomesarealityaswellasapossibility,thenourdefinitionsofwhatitmeanstobeahumanbeing,andtobeapartofhumansociety,willbechangedforever.Eventhelawsofevolutionmayhavetobereconceived.17.Ihavenotedthateducationisconservative,andthatthisconserva