语言学-Chapter 4-Syntax知识点

语言学_Chapter4_Syntax知识点TeachingObjectiveCriticalThinkingPresentandSolveProblemsUnderstandMacroscopicallyStudyofsentencefromdifferentperspectivesUnderstandMicroscopicallyChomsky:Generativeapproach

第四章句法学句子是由什么构成的？人们是如何产生和理解句子的？句子在语法系统中处于什么样的地位？构成句子的成分（如，短语、词）是如何构成的？不同的句子类型是如何产生的？以上问题是否可以通过形式分析来描述？

是否可以用一些普遍的规则概括句子的结构？形式主义对句子结构描述：简单的操作、雅致的描写、严格、清晰的逻辑。Syntaxreferstothestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaywordsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguageorsimply,thestudyoftheformationofsentences.Moreversions,Syntaxisthestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaysdifferentconstituentsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orthestudyoftheinterrelationshipsbetweenelementsinsentencestructures.Whatis

syntax?Whatistherelationshipbetweensyntax,morphologyandphonology?ThewrittensystemoflanguageSentencesyntaxClausesyntaxPhrasesyntaxWordmorphologyExlesI

think

that

that

that

that

that

student

wrote

on

the

blackboard

was

wrong.

Imetaman(whohadason(whosewifesoldcookies(thatshehadbakedinherkitchen(thatwasfullyequippedwithelectricalappliances(thatwerenew).))))

Ithink(thatthatthat[thatthatstudentwroteontheblackboard]iswrong).ApproachestothestudyofsentencesThetraditionalapproachThestructuralapproachThegenerativeapproachThefunctionalapproach

SentenceRule-governedsentenceformation

TraditionalapproachWord

Structuralapproach

Generativeapproach

Functionalapproach

Thetraditionalapproachtakesasentenceas(1)(句子观)asequenceofwords.(2)(研究视角)Itstudiessentenceformationbystudyingwordsintermsofcategories

（范畴）andtheirinterrelationships.

Traditionalapproach

数、性、格、时、体、态

一致、支配Sentence:traditionalapproach

simpleSentence complex复合句

non-simple compound并列句

Thestructuralapproachregardlinguisticunitsasinterrelatedwitheachotherinastructure(system),notasisolatedbits.Thisapproachtogrammar,basedonSaussure’sideasoflanguage,studiestheinterrelationshipsbetweenwords.

Structuralapproach横组合、纵聚合

AsentenceHasalinearstructure,hierarchicalstructure直接成分分析法

Generativeapproachismainlyreferredtotransformational-generativegrammar(TG转换生成语法)proposedbyNoamChomsky.Chomskyproposesthatthegrammarsofallhumanlanguagesshareacommonframework.

Generativeapproach深层结构表层结构转换规则JanevisitedJohn’sbrother’swife’smother’sfather’scousin’sfriend’sstore.SNPVP(V+NP)

Afunctionalapproachoffersanalternativetostructuralism(formalism)Languagecannotbedescribedwithoutexaminingitsfunction.Systemic-functionalapproachstartsfromclauseandextendsitselftodiscourse.Itinvolveswhatlanguagecanshow(ideationalfunction),whatkindofrelationcanitestablish(interpersonalfunction),andinwhatway(textualfunction).

FunctionalapproachFunctionalsentenceperspectivedenotestheanalysisofasentenceinrespecttoitscommunicativefunction.Thebasisofthesentenceisknowninformation,calledthetheme(topic,given),whilethatwhichissaidabouttheknowninformationisconsideredtobetherheme(comment,new).Sentence:functionalapproach

Yes/noInterrogativeIndicativewh-DeclarativeSentence

Imperative

AnalysisofgenerativeapproachChaptercontentsThegirlateanapple.4.2howtodefineeachwordinthesentence?4.5Howisthesentenceformed?4.3,4.4Howtodescribethephrasesinvolved?ArevisedoutlineforChapter4

4.2Wordcategories（word-formationrules[morphology]）4.3&4.4Phrasecategoriesphrase-formationrules(4.3)Phraseelements(4.4)4.5&4.6SentencecategoriesSentence-formationrules(4.6)

4.2WordCategories（范畴）Categoryreferstoagroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguagesuchasasentence,anounphraseoraverb.

Word-level(Lexical)categories

Major

English

lexical

categories实义语类Noun

(N)

student,lecture,JohnVerb

(V):

like,read,goAdjective

(Adj):

tall,lovely,redPreposition(P)about,over,onEnglishminor

lexicalcategories功能语类Minor

English

lexical

categoriesDeterminer(Det):

the,a,this,thoseDegreewords:quite,very,more,soQualifier(Qul):often,always,seldom,almostAuxiliary

(Aux):

can,will,do,do,be,haveConjunction

(Conj):

and,or,butComplementizer(C):that,if,for,whetherThecriteriaonwhichcategoriesaredetermined(textbook,p.43-44)MeaningInflectionDistributionForexle,Thegirlateanapple.Summaryofcategory词属于不同的类别；传统语法中称为“词性”(partofspeech)或“词类”(wordclass),生成语法中多称为句法类（syntacticcategory)或语法类（grammaticalcategory),简称语类(category)词可划分为十个语类：名词、动词、形容词、副词、介词、限定词、代词、助动词、标记词和连词。根据它们是否具有词汇意义、是否属于开放性语类，这些单词语类又可分为两大类：实义语类(contentcategory;contentive）和功能语类(functioncategory;functor)。实义语类在句中主要表示词汇意义，基本都属于开放性语类；功能语类主要表示语法功能，都属于封闭类语类。4.3Phrasecategories

4.2.2Phrasestructure4.3PhrasestructureruleXPruleCoordinationrule4.4PhraseelementsSpecifiersComplementsModifiersPHRASEisasingleelementofstructurecontainingmorethanoneword,andlackingthesubject-predicatestructuretypicalofclauses.ThephrasecategoriesThemajortypesofphrasesNPVPAPPPPhrasestructurerulePleasegroupthefollowingphrasesintocategories:thosepeoplefinishassignmentsthefishontheplatealwaysplaygamesontheshelfveryclosetoquitenearthestation(textbook,p.45)PhrasestructureruleNP

(Det)+N+(PP)…e.g.thosepeople,thefishontheplate,prettygirls.VP

(Qual)+V+(NP)…e.g.alwaysplaygames,finishassignments.AP

(Deg)+A+(PP)…veryhandsome,verypessimistic,familiarwith,veryclosetoPP

(Deg)+P+(NP)…ontheshelf,intheboat,quitenearthestation.(textbook,p.45)Istherearuletogeneralizeallthephrasestructures?Tobemoreabstract,XPruleamoreabstractbutsimplerformulas:XP(specifier)X(complement)Anythingwronginthefollowingsentences?Whichphraseruledoeseachofthefollowingsentencesinclude?

1.Helenputonherclothes,wearingherhatandwentout.2.Mymomboughtmeareddressandanewbagandanewphoneaspresent.3.Theboyismovingwithcarethehugestone.4.Iverymuchlikeyou.CoordinationruleCoordinationstructures-----thestructuresthatareformedbyjoiningtwoormoreelementsofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasand,or,etc.E.g.,Thereare…,…and…Youmayhave…,…or…HowwillXPindicatestructuressuchas:Apples,orangesandbananasCoordinationrule4.4phraseelements:revisedXPruleHowwillXPrulesdescribemorecomplexphrasestructuressuchas:Mymomboughtmeanew…Therefore,morerevisionsoftherulebelow:ExpandedversionsofXPrule4.4.2(p.48)Howtoillustratephraseswithmorethanonecomplement?(textbook,p.47-49)Sendme

anemailPutit

onthewallComplement:TheXPrulerevisedXP(specifier)X(complement*)Complements,howevermanythereare,occurtotherightoftheheadinEnglish.Howtoillustrateasentence-likecomplement?Complementizer+complementclause4.4.2Howtoillustrateasentence-likecomplement?E.g.,Iwasafraid

thatnobodywouldbelieveme.

Matrixclause[CP]CP=Complementizer+complementclause

Complementizercomplementclause4.4.3ModifiersA

verycharming

lady

atthecarexhibition

(Specifier)(modifier)head(complement)WhatisthepositionofmodifiersintheXPrulestructures?TheexpandedXPrule:XP(specifier)(Mod)X(complement*)(Mod)Amodifiercanoccureitherbeforeorafterthehead.Wherethereisacomplement,amodifierthatoccursaftertheheadwilloccurtotherightofthecomplementaswell.E.g.,acarefulgirl,readcarefully,readabookcarefullyopenthecanwithcareNow,SrulesTherulesgoverningtheformationofsentencesTHESRULESNPVP4.5&4.6ThestructureofSentences

Howaredifferentsentencepatternsproduced?Whatisthedifferenceofthefollowingthreesentences?Henrywashappytohearit.Maryiseasytoteach.Theclothesareeasytowash.剩女产生的原因：一是谁都看不上，二是谁都看不上在屋顶上发现了小王Atreediagramusedtolabelthephrasestructure树形图最为直观，不仅显示出句子的线性结构(linearrelationship)，而且清楚地表明其阶层结构（hierarchicalstructure）上面讲的这些规则都是通过线性的方式实现的。下面将介绍生成语法中最常用的直接成分分析法(ICanalysis)，该方法对短语或句子结构的分析表现为树形图（treediagram）TheanalysisofsentencescanbecarriedoutinwaysofICAnalysis(直接成分分析法)通常通过bracketing(方括号分析法)和treediagrams(树形图）实现。ICAnalysisreferstodivisionofasentenceupintoimmediateconstituentsbyusingbinarycuttinguntilobtainingitsultimateconstituents.

（把句子按其组成部分/成分用两进制切分法/二分法一直划到最小的语法单位－又称最终成分。）

Immediateconstituents（直接成分）:thetwopartsthatareyieldedafterasentenceiscutintoitsconstituentelements.Ultimateconstituent（最终成分）:thesmallestgrammaticalunitobtainedthroughthedivision,orsegmentationortheformsattheword-level.这样的图形像一棵倒立的树，故称为树形图(treediagram)，文献中常简称为树（tree)，也叫短语标记(phrasemarker)。下面介绍关于树形图的一些基本概念.树形图上语类标记所在的点称为节点（node)，连接节点的直线叫树枝（branch)。一个节点向下分成两条或更多条直线叫分杈该节点叫分杈节点（branchingnode)；只向下延伸出一条直线的节点叫“非分杈节点”，上例中NP,VP,PP是分杈节点,V,P,DET,N是非分杈节点。树形图上节点间的关系常被形象地喻为亲缘关系。分杈节点称为母亲节点(mothernode)简称母节；分杈产生的节点是母节的女儿节(daughternode)两个女儿节互为姐妹节（sisternodes)，在上例中，VP向下分杈长出V和NP两个节点，VP是母节，V和NP是VP的两个女儿节，两者又互为姐妹节。反过来，PP又是P和NP的母亲节，P和NP互为姐妹节，是PP的两个女儿。

moreexlesofICanalysis

Thegirlatetheapple(S).the+girl(NP)ate+the+apple(VP)

ImmediateConstituentAnalysis

(ICAnalysis)

(1)bracketing

(((The)(girl))

((ate)

((the)(apple))))ImmediateConstituentAnalysis(ICAnalysis)(2)Thegirlatetheapple

(3)LabeledTreediagram

SNPVPDetNVNPDetNThegirlatetheapple

4.6Transformationrules

IntroductionofTGgrammarDeepstructureandsurfacestructureSometransformationrules转换生成语法Chomsky，1957年提出；1965年，Chomsky将其理论发展为标准理论（standardtheory,简称ST）属形式语言学范畴，依靠演绎、形式、符号、公式等与内容相对的手段来分析语言。“转换生成”是什么意思？语法可以生成从未用过的正确语句；语法描写涉及两种表达式或结构描写之间的运算和转换。

Chomsky,whohastaughtattheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnologysince1955,developedatheoryoftransformationalgrammarthatrevolutionizedthescientificstudyoflanguage.Hefirstsetouthisabstractanalysisoflanguageinhisdoctoraldissertation(1955)andSyntacticStructures(1957).Insteadofstartingwithminimalsounds,asthestructurallinguistshaddone,Chomskybeganwiththerudimentaryorprimitivesentence;fromthisbasehedevelopedhisargumentthatinnumerablesyntacticcombinationscanbegeneratedbymeansofacomplexseriesofrules.

NoamChomskyNoamChomskywasbornonDecember7,1928inPhiladelphia,Pennsylvania.HisundergraduateandgraduateyearswerespentattheUniversityofPennsylvaniawherehereceivedhisPhDinlinguisticsin1955.

转化生成语法

转换生成语法:它产生于20世纪50年代，由形式语法学家乔姆斯基提出。他认为仅仅描写语法形式是不够的，而要探索隐藏在语法行为背后的人类普遍的“语法能力”，这种语言能力通过一套“深层结构”向“表层结构”的转换规则，从而把意义和形式结合起来，把静态描写提高到动态描写。转换生成语法认为，语言是受规则支配的体系，人具有天生的语言习得机制和语言能力。人类使用语言不是靠机械模仿和记忆，而是不断理解、掌握语言规则、举一反三地创造性地运用语言的过程。句子的产生语法→转换部分→表层结构→语音部分→句子的语音表现基础部分→深层结构→语义部分→句子的语义表现

上图是一个转换-生成语法的理论框图。语法主要包括基础和转换两个部分，基础部分生成深层结构，深层结构通过转换得到表层结构，语义部分属于深层结构，它为深层结构作出语义解释。语音部分属于表层结构并为表层结构作出语音解释。

ThegoalofTGgrammaristofindoutasystemofrulestoaccountforthelinguisticcompetenceofnativespeakersofalanguagetoformgrammaticalsentences.toprovidetherulesthatcanbeusedtogenerategrammaticalsentences;toshowhowbasicsentencescanbetransformedintoeither

synonymousphrasesormorecomplexsentences.

DeepStructureandSurfaceStructureAccordingtoTG,humanbeingspossesstwogrammars:–aphrasegrammarwhichconsistsoftherulesgoverningidealizedsentenceformation;--atransformationalgrammar,whichenablesustomanipulatesentencestoproducethefullrangeofsentencetypes.Asaconsequence,everysentencehasasurfacestructureandadeepstructure.Deepstructure

Theabstractrepresentationofthesyntacticpropertiesofaconstruction.--revealstheunderlyingstructureofalinguisticutteranceandspecifiesthegrammaticalrelationsandfunctionsofthesyntacticelements.Ablueprintfortheconstructionofwell-formedsentences.

SurfaceStructureTheactuallyproducedstructurethestructuralorganizationofaconstructionpeopleactuallyproduceandreceivethedirectlyobservableactualformofsentencesastheyareusedincommunicationAsentencestructureresultingfromtheapplicationoftransformationalrules.Lookatthefollowingillustration:

Howisasentenceproduced?

Surface

Structure(Transformationrules)DeepStructure

Therepresentationsofthesetwolevelsdon’thavetobedifferent.Whentransformationsarenotnecessary,therepresentationsofthetwolevelslookthesame.4.3.2SentenceTransformationWecangeneratealargenumberofsentenceswithonlyasmallnumberofrules,i.e.,“phrasestructure”rules.Tree-diagramformatcandescribethetransformationprocess.--astaticrepresentationofthestructureofthesentenceatthebottomofthediagram.--a“dynamic”format,inthesensethatitrepresentsawayof“generating”notonlythatonesentence,butaverylargenumberofsentenceswithsimilarstructuresHowdoestransformationtakeplace?Twoprocesses：Everytransformationisbasedonthedeletionandinsertionofconstituents.Substitution(thedeletionandinsertionofdifferentelementsinthesameplace)andpermutation(thedeletionofanelementfromoneplaceanditsinsertioninanother)areoperationsderivedfromdeletionandinsertionofconstituents.Howdothefollowingtransformationstakeplace?Howarethefollowingstructures/sentencesproduced?Willthetrainarrive?4.6.1auxiliarymovementDobirdsfly?4.6.2doinsertionWhatwillyoutalkabout?Whatlanguagescanyouspeak?4.6.4whmovementAgeneralSrule:Movealpha“α”Anexleofactive-passivetransformationThepassivetransformationdealswiththerelationbetweenpairslike:

(a)Theboysawcats.(b)Catswereseenbytheboy.

4.6.1Aux-movement（助动词移动）

Themovementofanauxiliaryverb

tothesentence-initial

position,suchasbe,have,do,will,can,andshould.eg.Johnwillbuyapresent.WillJohnbuyapresent?TheInversionRule4.6.2DoinsertionInsertinterrogativedointoanemptyInflpositioneg.Birdsfly.Birdsdofly.Dobirdsfly?

4.6.4WH-movement

WH-movementisobligatory

inEnglish,whichchangesasentencefromaffirmative

tointerrogative.eg.Johnwillbuywhat.WhatwillJohnbuy?JohnwillputbookswhereWherewillJohnputbooks?

Moveαandconstraintsontransformations

InversioncanmoveanauxiliaryfromtheInfltothenearestCposition,butnottoamoredistantCposition.