国际经济学克鲁格曼课件

KRUGMANOBSTFELDMELITZINTERNATIONALECONOMICSTHEORY

&POLICYNINTH

EDITIO

NExternalEcono

miesofScale

and

theInternationalLocationProductionChapter

7Copyright

◎

2012

PearsonAddison-Wesley.All

rights

reserved.Addison-Wesley

isan

imprint

ofofPreview·Types

of

economies

of

scales

f

n

dec

tructureomiesrket

snaomlnaaexterscaleofoyeriomeohntoheEc··T●·

External

economies

and

international

tradeDynamic

increasing

returns·International

trade

and

economic

geography7-2Copyright

◎

2012

Pearson

Addison-Wesley.All

rights

reserved.Introduction·The

models

of

comparative

advantage

thusfarassumedconstantreturnstoscale:-Wheninputs

to

an

industry

increase

at

a

certainrate,output

increases

at

the

same

rate.-If

inputs

were

doubled,output

would

double

as7-3Copyright

◎

2012

Pearson

Addison-Wesley.All

rights

reserved.well.

ntroduction(cont.)-

n

e

i

nr

t

t

ci

yat

afaster

rate.esstrsuinanuoptus,outateinpneahrtwat

a

cs

thatncreasehis

meaiT·I-A

larger

scale

is

more

efficient:the

cost

per

unitButtheremay

be

increasing

returnstoscaleorecono

miesofscale:of

output

falls

as

a

firm

or

industry

increases7-4Copyright

◎

2012

Pearson

Addison-Wesley.All

rights

reserved.output.Introduction(cont.)·

Forexample,supposeanindustryproducesdeens.letsroroff

wiof

linpusoierntemeunouayenwinncohousesprespendsiderdgetsTC··from

the

fact

that

e

widgetsachtheeesthucsererormtry

plaboborsfauolndntofiuttwagheenay's

outhe

iis

lessthe

aveindustdoublin--7-5Copyright

◎

2012

Pearson

Addison-Wesley.All

rights

reserved.TABLE

7-1

Relationship

of

Input

to

Output

for

a

Hypothetical

IndustryOutputTotal

Labor

InputAverage

Labor

Input510210151.515201.33333320251.2525301.230351.166667Table7-1:RelationshipofInput

toOutputfora

Hypothetical

Industry7-6Copyright

◎

2012

PearsonAddison-Wesley.Allrightsreserved.Introduction(cont.)·Mutuallybeneficialtradecanariseasaresult

of

economies

of

scale.·Internationaltrade

permits

each

country

toproduce

a

limited

range

of

goods

withoutsacrificing

variety

in

consumption.·

With

trade,a

country

can

take

advantageof

economies

of

scale

to

produce

moreefficiently

than

if

it

tried

to

produceeverythingforitself.7-7Copyright

◎2012

Pearson

Addison-Wesley.All

rights

reserved.Econo

miesofScaleand

MarketStructure·

Economies

of

scale

could

mean

either

that

larger·

rnnita

poumtdi

d

c

t

csui

ewohfetnh

·

ts

r

l

ncito

fo

tod

dl

c

hrewshi

eafirm.enzencs

oe

openscaefpuesoumonueerapncoInecostzreconaleenofpseeuoocolueperExtfirms

or

a

larger

industry

would

be

more

efficient.industry.7-8Copyright

◎

2012

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Addison-Wesley.All

rights

reserved.

con

)mies

of

Scale

and

Market

Structure

T

i

o

t

r

t

f

u

e

ofi

y

where

economies

of

scale

are

purely

externalindustrstries:nurearstructscaleeeofaosnnnootiaeanlplicnrtnearioinffulifaahrohwilltypically

consist

of

many

smallfirms

and

be

perfectlycompetitive.-Internal

economies

of

scale

result

when

large

firms

have

a

e

rc

l

,causing

the

industry

tovemsirtitifelpammosyetlvcofee

imperdvantagmaotcseobc7-9Copyright

◎

2012

Pearson

Addison-Wesley.All

rights

reserved.TheTheory

of

External

Economies·This

chapter

deals

with

a

model

of

externaleconomies;thenextchapterwillcoverinternal

economies.·Manymodernexamplesof

industries

thatseemtobe

powerfulexternaleconomies:-In

the

United

States,the

semiconductor

industryr

l

ntnteemmentertainey,investtheValandcondkilwooYorinSoeeHNatnntiinskiouncinbis7-10Copyright

◎2012

Pearson

Addison-Wesley.All

rights

reserved.TheTheoryofExternal

Economies(cont.)-Indeveloping

countriessuch

as

China,externaleconomies

are

pervasive

in

manufacturing.·One

town

in

China

produces

most

of

the

world'sunderwear,another

nearly

all

cigarette

lighters.-External

economies

played

a

key

role

inIndia'semergence

as

a

major

exporter

of

informationservices.·I

e

ces

companies

are

stillevirroeangalion

sBatinrmdfoenritnclusndia7-11Copyright

◎

2012

Pearson

Addison-Wesley.All

rights

reserved.TheTheoryof

External

Economies(cont.)·Fora

variety

of

reasons,concentratingreasons:production

of

an

industry

in

one

or

a

fewlocations

can

reduce

the

industry's

costs,even

if

the

individual

firms

in

the

industryremainsmall.·External

economiesmay

exist

for

a

few7-12Copyright

◎

2012

Pearson

Addison-Wesley.All

rights

reserved.TheTheoryofExternal

Economies(cont.)1.S

f

eihpei

pplieddsuaye

aonlesrgecalarrvisteybusttthumsford

eefzonteheciyeFor

example,Silicon

Valley

in

California

has

a

largeconcentrationof

siliconchipcompanies,whichareserviced

by

companies

that

make

special

machines

formanufacturing

silicon

chips.These

machines

are

cheaper

and

more

easily

availablethere

than

elsewhere.concentrated.7-13Copyright

◎

2012

Pearson

Addison-Wesley.All

rights

reserved.TheTheoryofExternal

Economies(cont.)2.

Labor

pooling:a

large

and

concentratedindustrymay

attract

apool

of

workers,reducingemployee

search

and

hiring

costs

for

each

firm.

3.

Knowledgespillovers:

workersfromdifferentfirms

may

more

easily

share

ideas

that

benefit

me

a

large

and

concentratedtsenshxiwyrtrfidusachine7-14Copyright

◎

2012

Pearson

Addison-Wesley.All

rights

reserved.Th

e

Theory

of

External

Economies(cont.)Represent

external

economies

simply

byThereisaforward-falling

supplycurve:thelarger

theindustry's

output,thelowerthe

price

at

which

firms

are

willing

to

sell.Without

internationaltrade,theunusualslopeof

the

supply

curve

doesn'tmattermuch.assuming

that

the

larger

the

industry,thelower

the

industry's

costs.7-15Copyright

◎2012

Pearson

Addison-Wesley.All

rights

reservedExternal

Econo

miesand

International

Trade·

Priortointernationaltrade,equilibriumpricesandoutput

for

each

country

would

be

at

the

pointwhere

the

domestic

supply

curve

intersects

the·S

c

s

nb

na

e

ofscenpricbseoetthutSiUenriapr

thonrve.ettuwuclobdenesalhdouCcapo7-16Copyright

◎

2012

Pearson

Addison-Wesley.All

rights

reserved.Price,cost

(per

button)Fig.7-2:ExternalEconomiesBeforeTradeChinese

button

i

o

ndnaptionmctuusdnocoprU.S.buttonproductionand

consumption7-17Copyright

◎

2012

Pearson

Addison-Wesley.All

rights

reserved.External

Econo

miesand

InternationalTrade(cont.)

T

t

i

eThi

t

ri

s,it

se

ts

ill

f

in

rther;asfueseallChwthesscolf:Asitseonudstpeeoufindustrys

procettthhelepwhn

uand,opeexpriescllnsctoryntwraithoensc?ouinhndustbuttoptrpaedne·Int

eU

no

u

il

it

i

o

i

i

ii

..aensChll

rnwetsbsllcwsonls,ctfaprodutputl

buttoustry'saldend.S.ithhe7-18Copyright

◎

2012

Pearson

Addison-Wesley.All

rights

reserved.External

Econo

miesand

InternationalTrade(cont.)·How

does

thisconcentrationof

productionaffecteb

a

ply

rve

-fal

s

c

r

t

h

f

to

a·

trade.resfaeebliceaderrpteohan

tresultraweasittcauhdtoepridpebuttonincreattonerlwb,ug.blinU.Sforwardthanswcuerep.ueesaprsrneCeutftusesacsecreiepinBCh··Trade

leads

to

prices

that

are

lower

than

theprices

in

either

country

before

trade!prices?7-19Copyright

◎

2012

Pearson

Addison-Wesley.All

rights

reserved.ExternalEcono

miesandInternationalTrade(cont.)·Very

different

from

the

implications

of

modelswithout

increasing

returns.·Inthestandardtrademodel

relative

prices·If

c

eis

la

iv

u

h

p

e

he

home

countryt.naditrafeocltelyrestareashrgclotonve

or

el

o

ei

ec

h

f

tf

nw

u

yraisetontrsoacradeoreigoettffneehv,tsipensexpenelydetraativerefndbacloth

prices

in

Home

and

reduce

them

in

Foreign.●

t

x

r

u

o

r

t,the

effect

ofreashnywcoeyes,secemiriopneccedlearnoettiseehditraW7-20Copyright

◎2012

Pearson

Addison-Wesley.All

rights

reserved.ofbuttons

dndecedaudemprodFig.7-3:TradeandPricesPrice,cost(per

button)7-21Copyright

◎2012

Pearson

Addison-Wesley.All

rights

reserved.External

Econo

miesand

InternationalTrade(cont.)·What

might

cause

one

country

to

have

an

initialf

trad

te

uld

b

c

esto

his

i

e

ents:

pattern-Countries

that

start

as

large

producers

inidecthacver,alowc,hitrstoexdueonomieeoalcrneexoIf·

advantage

from

having

a

lower

price?One

possibility

is

comparative

advantage

due

to underlying

differences

in

technology

and

resources.·certain

industries

tend

to

remain

largeproducers

even

if

another

country

couldpotentiallyproducemorecheaply.7-22Copyright

◎

2012

Pearson

Addison-Wesley.All

rights

reserved.External

Econo

miesand

InternationalTrade(cont.)·Atuftedblanket,craftedas

awedding

gift

by

a19th-centuryteenager,gaverisetotheclusterof·S

tV

l

u

r

st

gia.ence

to

twoDalton,GeorexiundsrooweersmayfactuyneaalmiliconcarpeStanford

graduates

named

Hewlett

and

Packardwho

started

a

business

in

a

garage

there.7-23Copyright

◎

2012

Pearson

Addison-Wesley.All

rights

reserved.External

Econo

miesand

InternationalTrade(cont.)

A

O

pi

utaephrkmCmas

ianyhthouchyweupplhismorsttsloeilhrwunmaigmhtnufactVietnemaewldealoroemwlinarsvee,Vietatmcueioceottiowf

apgbeetnc

aaevelineseuhreveVilhctgivehaneinethsanywer

tsesuCmhtloAth·N

n

asdeachmlipersoduChinanowile

ifosaluerncotheexthtbigesbject

toat

the

roatd

aslwtaarytuhenat

isnteeonfeeaaghonugoeB7-24Copyright

◎

2012

Pearson

Addison-Wesley.All

rights

reserved.Price,cost(perbutton)CP₁producedanddemandedFig.7-4:The

Importance

of

EstablishedAdvantage7-25Copyright

◎

2012

PearsonAddison-Wesley.All

rights

reserved.Q1External

Econo

miesand

International·

anexternal

economies.-It

i

u

a

ec

y

t

s

a

:

irydentraawdeofftrehoutworwiisbeeountavahtdhltoeitssanpoth'systrieconwemiseoof

indworldtieocnoaionthenarnalpaenienggdefof

yeb

e

ffr

rp

c

ye

y

r

r

itstsfopnmhiitrroefvaspenuhotretthf

iaitokrarttemestbdomTrade(cont.)7-26Copyright

◎

2012

Pearson

Addison-Wesley.All

rights

reserved.IEnxtteerrna

i

oanloTmrai

se

cnodnt.)·

Imagine

that

Thailand

could

makewatches

morecheaply,but

Switzerland

got

there

first.of

watches

trade.·Theprice

with

no·Trade

couldmake

Thailand

worseoff,creatinganincentive

to

protect

its

potential

watch

industry·

from

foreigncompetition.What

if

Thailand

reverts

to

autarky?couldbelowerin

Thailand7-27Copyright

◎

2012

Pearson

Addison-Wesley.All

rights

reserved.External

Economiesand·Note

that

it's

still

to

the

benefit

of

the

world·

i

riyn

i

pn

eie

e

fe

loef·

r

,i

.he

world

that

each

industrywith

external

economies

be

concentratedtsfflrnttecobede'srattrallteseavescafitsonotecoreattyintrntsaduwnntaungcohousEach

d

age

of

the

gains

fromiesantstrdvuaneikgtainottrayntmeocnnoocceInternationalTrade(cont.)somewhere.7-28Copyright

◎

2012

Pearson

Addison-Wesley.All

rights

reserved.Fig.7-5:External

Economies

and

Losses

fromTradeQuantityofwatchesproducedanddemandedCopyright

◎

2012

Pearson

Addison-Wesley.All

rights

reserved.Price,cost(perwatch)7-29P,Dynamic

Increasing

Returns·

So

far,we

have

considered

cases

where

external·

But

external

economies

may

also

depend

on

theDynamic

increasingreturnstoscaleexist

ifrises.-Dynamicincreasingreturns

to

scaleimplydynamicexternaleconomiesofscale.·

amount

of

cumulative

output

over

time.

dpeo

.e

amount

of

currentehimn

tindneasteamioutputeconoaverage

costs

fall

as

cumulative

output

over

time7-30Copyright

◎

2012

Pearson

Addison-Wesley.All

rights

reserved.Dynamic

Increasing

Returns(cont.)·

Dynamic

increasing

returns

to

scale

could

arise·Aregtr

rpnhsictaollr

si

tl

ledayr

ai

cc

asingerevcrnuingminneoaacntsecesruaif

the

cost

of

production

depends

on

theaccumulation

of

knowledge

and

experience,which

depend

on

the

production

processoverti

me.7-31Copyright

◎

2012

Pearson

Addison-Wesley.All

rights

reserved.outputFig.7-6:The

Learning

Curve7-32Copyright

◎

2012

Pearson

Addison-Wesley.All

rights

reserved.Dynamic

Increasing

Returns(cont.)·Like

external

economies

of

scale

at

a

point

in

time,-But

temporary

is

often

for

a

long

time,and

it

is

hard

to

yi

i

ri

.

an·Canalsobe

usedtojustify

protectionism.-Temporary

protection

of

industries

enables

them

to

gainexperience:

infantindustryargument.ynstkucdloinnancastart

ito

scaor

a

headng

returnsantagencreasvidcal

aamitinindidentifywhen

external

economies

ofscale

really

exist.7-33Copyright

◎

2012

Pearson

Addison-Wesley.All

rights

reserved.InternationalTradeand

EconomicGeography·E

t-Many

financial

firms

located

in

New

Yorkguetontrughs

Acoimtnn-Mparondyxfoter

rinnatprovidefinancial

servicesfor

consumersthroughout

the

U.S.7-34Copyright

◎

2012

Pearson

Addison-Wesley.All

rights

reserved.U.S.IGn

piohny

atd)e

and

Econo

mic·Somenontradable

goods

likeveterinary·If

trade

er

ay

be

o

o

hi

ihceal

a

tit

nts:

oferncpstorexist,ttoseieumecmnalextoTclraatgnoeret-Regions

that

start

as

large

producers

in

certainindustries

tend

to

remain

large

producers

evenif

another

region

could

potentially

produce

morecheaply.services

must

usually

be

supplied

locally.7-35Copyright

◎

2012

Pearson

Addison-Wesley.All

rights

reserved.TABLE

7-2

Some

Examples

of

Tradable

and

Nontradable

IndustriesTradable

Industries

Nontradable

IndustriesMotion

picturesSecurities,commodities,etcScientific

researchNewspaper

publishers

Savings

institutions

Veterinary

servicesSource:J.Bradford

Jensen

and

Lori.G.Kletzer,“Tradable

Services:Understanding

the

Scope

and

Impact

of

Services

Outsourcing,"in

Lael

Brainard

and

Susan

M.Collins,eds.,BrookingsTrade

Forum

2005:Offshoring

White

Collar

Work(Washington,D.C.:Brookings

Institution,

2005),pp.75-116.Table7-2:Some

ExamplesofTradable

and

Nontradable

Industries7-36Copyright

◎

2012

Pearson

Addison-Wesley.All

rights

reserved.GIneorgn

piohnya(lc

rnatd)e

and

Econo

mic·More

broadly,economicgeographyareas.—Economic

geography

studies

how

humansrefers

to

the

study

of

international

trade,interregional

trade

and

the

organization

ofeconomic

activity

in

metropolitan

and

ruraltransact

with

each

other

across

space.·Communication

changes

such

as

theInternet,e-mail,textmail,videoconferencing,mobile

phones(as

wellas

modern

transportation)are

changing

how

humanstransactwitheachother

across

space.7-37Copyright

◎

2012

Pearson

Addison-Wesley.All

rights

reserved.Summary1.

Trade

need

not

be

the

result

of

comparative2.

Economies

of

scale

give

countries

an

incentive

topif

sa

r

r

no

nt

c

e

eentwofogysennolabechthericeseveueestrainndncelizeeafer