英语国家概况复习笔记

FinalapprovaldraftonNovember22,2020FinalapprovaldraftonNovember22,2020英语国家概况复习笔记英语国家概况复习笔记Chapter1LandandPeople英国的国土与人民DifferentNamesforBritainanditsParts英国的不同名称及其各组成部分1.Geographicalnames:theBritishIsles,GreatBritainandEngland.地理名称:不列颠群岛,大不列颠和英格兰.2.Officialname:theUnitedKingdomofGreatBritainandNorthernIreland.官方正式名称:大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国.3.TheBritishIslesaremadeupoftwolargeislands—GreatBritain(thelargerone)andIreland,andhundredsofsmallones.不列颠群岛由两个大岛［大不列颠岛（较大的一个）和爱尔兰岛］及成千上万个小岛组成.4.ThreepoliticaldivisionsontheislandofGreatBritain:England,ScotlandandWales.大不列颠岛上有三个政区:英格兰,苏格兰和威尔士.①EnglandisinthesouthernpartofGreatBritain.Itisthelargest,mostpopuloussection.位于大不列颠岛南部,是最大,人口最稠密的地区.②ScotlandisinthenorthofGreatBritain.Ithasthreenaturalzones(theHighlandsinthenorth;theCentrallowlands;thesouthUplands)Capital:Edinburgh.苏格兰位于大不列颠的北部.它有三大自然区：北部高地,中部低地及南部山陵.首府：爱丁堡.③WalesisinthewestofGreatBritain.Capital:Cardiff威尔士位于大不列颠的西部.首府：加的夫④NorthernIrelandisthefourthregionoftheUK.Capital:Belfast.北爱尔兰是英国第四个区域.首府：贝尔法斯特5.TheCommonwealth(ofnations)isafreeassociationofindependentcountriesthatwereoncecoloniesofBritain.Membernationsarejoinedtogethereconomicallyandhavecertaintradingagreements.TheCommonwealthhasnospecialpowers.ThedecisiontobecomeamemberoftheCommonwealthislefttoeachnation.Itwasfoundedin1931,andhas50membercountriesuntil1991.英联邦是一个自由联合体,由曾是英国殖民地而现在已经独立的国家构成.成员国之间实行经济合作,有一定的贸易协议.英联邦没有特别的权利,是否参加英联邦由各成员国自己决定.它成立于1931年,到1991年止已有50个成员国.Chapter2TheOriginsofaNation(5000BC-1066)英国的起源1.ArrivalandsettlementoftheCeltsAtabout700BCtheCeltsbegantoarriveinBritainandkeptcominguntilthearrivaloftheRomans.TheymaycomeoriginallyfromeasternandcentralEurope,nowFrance,BelgiumandsouthernGermany.约公元前700年,凯尔特人来到不列颠岛并一直陆续到来直到罗马人的入侵.他们可能源自东欧和中欧,即现在的法国,比利时和德国南部.Theycameinthreemainwaves:theGaels~about600BC;theBrythons~about400BC;theBelgae~about150BC.凯尔特人来到不列颠有三次高潮:第一次是约公元前600年的盖尔人;第二次是约公元前400年的布立吞人;第三次是约公元前150年的贝尔盖人.TheCeltictribesaretheancestorsoftheHighlandScots,theIrishandtheWelsh,andtheirlanguagesarethebasisofbothWelshandGaelic.凯尔特人是山地苏格兰人,爱尔兰人和威尔士人的祖先,他们的语言是威尔士语和盖尔语的基础.TheCelts’religionwasDruidism.凯尔特人的宗教为德鲁伊德教.TheBelgaewerethemostindustriousandvigorousoftheCeltictribes.贝尔盖人是最勤奋,最精力充沛的.TheCeltswerepractisedfarmers.凯尔特人是有经验的农民.2.BasisofmodernEnglishrace:theAnglo-Saxons现代英国人的基础:盎格鲁—萨克逊(446-871)Inthemid-5thcenturyJutes,Saxons,andAnglescametoBritain.TheywerethreeTeutonictribes.TheJutes,whofishedandfarmedinJutland(nowsouthernDenmark),cametoBritainfirst.ThentheSaxonscame.TheycamefromnorthernGermany,establishedtheirkingdomsinEssex,SussexandWessex.Inthesecondhalfofthe6thcentury,theAngleswhoalsocamefromnorthernGermanyandweretogivetheirnametotheEnglishpeople,settledinEastAnglia,MerciaandNorthumbria.五世纪中叶,朱特人,撒克逊人和盎格鲁人来到不列颠岛.这是三支日耳曼部落.居住在朱特兰岛(现丹麦南部)从事打渔农耕的朱特人先到达不列颠;接着是撒克逊人,他们来自德国北部,在埃塞克斯,苏塞克斯和威塞克斯建立了王国;六世纪后半叶,同样来自德国北部把自己名字给了英国人的盎格鲁人,在东盎格利亚,麦西亚以及诺森伯利来定居.Heptarchy:DuringtheAnglo-Saxon’stime,Britainwasdividedintomanykingdoms,amongwhichthereweresevenprincipalkingdomsofKent,Essex,Sussex,Wessex,EastAnglia,MerciaandNorthumbria.TheyweregiventhenameforHeptarchy.在盎格鲁-撒克逊时期,英国被划分为许多王国,其中有七个主要王国:肯特,埃塞克斯,苏塞克斯,威塞克斯,东盎格利亚,麦西亚和诺森伯利来.他们被合称为七王国.TheAnglo-Saxontribeswereconstantlyatwarwithoneanother,eachtryingtogettheupperhand,sothatthekingdomswereoftenbrokenupandoftenpiecedtogetheragain.盎格鲁-撒克逊部落之间不断交战,彼此都想占上风,因此王国总是分了合,合了又分TheAnglo-SaxonsbroughttheirownTeutonicreligiontoBritain.盎格鲁—撒克逊人把日耳曼宗教带到了英国.AlthoughtheAnglo-Saxonswereferociouspeople,theylaidthefoundationsoftheEnglishstate.Firstly,theydividedthecountryintoshires;Secondly,theydevisedthenarrow-strip,three-fieldfarmingsystemwhichcontinuedtothe18thcentury;Thirdly,theyalsoestablishedthemanorialsystem.Finally,theycreatedtheWitan(council/meetingofwisemen)toadvisetheking,thebasisofthePrivyCouncilwhichstillexiststoday.虽然盎格鲁-撒克逊人是凶猛的民族,但他们为英国国家的形成打下了基础.首先他们把国家划分为郡;其次他们设计的窄条三圃田农耕制延用至18世纪;他们还建立了采邑制;最后他们还创立了议会(贤人会议),向国王提供建议,这是现存的枢密院的基础.3.TheVikingandDanishinvasionsTheNorwegianVikingsandtheDanesattackedvariouspartsofEnglandfromtheendofthe8thcentury.TheDanesgainedcontrolofthenorthandeastofEngland—theDanelaw.从8世纪末起,挪威海盗和丹麦人就不断袭击英格兰各地方.丹麦人控制英格兰北部和东部丹麦法区.AfterAlfred’sdeath,hissuccessorsreconqueredtheDanelaw.KingEthelredtheUnreadytriedpayingtheinvaderstostayaway.ButtheDanesdidn’tgoawaybutinvadeagain.亚尔弗雷德死后,他的继任者们重新征服了丹麦地区."未准备好者"埃塞尔雷德国王进贡给丹麦人以免被侵略,但丹麦人又再度进犯.AfterEthelred’sdeath,Canute,theDanishleaderwasmadeEnglishkingin1016.Heprovedtobeawiseruler.Afterhisdeathin1035,hissonsHaroldandHardicanutereignedsuccessively.AfterHardicanute’sdeaththesuccessionpassedtothesuccessorEdwardtheConfessor.埃塞尔雷德死后,丹麦首领喀奴特在1016年成为了英国国王.他是位英明的通知者.1035年他死后,他的儿子哈罗德和哈迪喀奴特先后统治王国.哈迪喀奴特死后,王位传给了"忏悔者"爱德华.4.KingAlfredandhiscontributions亚尔弗雷德国王和他所做出的贡献(849-899)①AlfredwasthekingofWessexanddefeatedtheDanesandreachedafriendlyagreementwiththemin879亚尔弗雷德是威塞克斯的国王.他打败了丹麦人,并于公元879年与他们达成了友好协议;②Hefoundedastrongfleetandisknownas“thefatheroftheBritishnavy”他因为建立了强大舰队,而以“英国海军之父”闻名于世;③HereorganizedtheSaxonarmy,makingitmoreefficient他改组了撒克逊军队,使之更为高效;④HeissaidtohavetaughthimselfLatinandtranslatedaLatinbookintoEnglish据说他自学了拉丁语并将一本拉丁语书译成英语⑤Heencouragedlearninginothers,establishedschoolsandformulatedalegalsystem.Allthisearnshimthetitle“AlfredtheGreat”他鼓励向他人求知并修建学校,并且制订法律制度.5.TheNormanConquestanditsconsequences诺曼征服及其影响(1066)ItwassaidthatkingEdwardhadpromisedtheEnglishthronetoWilliam,buttheWitanchoseHaroldasking.SoWilliamledhisarmytoinvadeEngland.InOctober1066,WilliamdefeatedHaroldinthebattleofHastings.OnChristmasDayWilliamwascrownedkingofEnglandinWestminsterAbbey.据说爱德华国王曾答应把英格兰王位传给诺曼底公爵威廉,但是贤人会议挑选了哈罗德为国王.公元1066年10月,在哈斯丁斯战役中威廉打败了哈罗德军队.圣诞节这天在威斯敏斯特大教堂,威廉被加冕为英格兰国王.TheNormanConquestof1066isperhapsthebest-knowneventinEnglishhistory.WilliamtheConquerorconfiscatedalmostallthelandandgaveittohisNormanfollowers.HereplacedtheweakSaxonrulewithastrongNormangovernment.TheNormanConquestendedtheEnglishhistoryofbeinginvaded,thefeudalsystemwascompletelyestablishedinEngland.RelationswiththeContinentwereopened,andcivilizationandcommercewereextended.Norman-Frenchculture,language,mannersandarchitecturewereintroduced.TheChurchwasbroughtintocloserconnectionwithRome,andthechurchcourtswereseparatedfromthecivilcourts.公元1066年的诺曼征服也许是英国历史上的最着名事件.征服者威廉没收了几乎所有土地,将其分发给他的诺曼追随者.他用强大的诺曼政府取代软弱的撒克逊人统治.诺曼征服结束了被侵略的英国历史,英格兰完全确立了封建制度:扩展了与欧洲大陆的关系;文明和商业都得到发展;引进了诺曼—法国文化、语言、举止和建筑.教会与罗马的联系更为密切,教会法庭从世俗法庭中单独分离出来.Chapter3TheShapingoftheNation英国的形成（公元1066-1381）1.England'sfeudalismundertheruleofWilliamtheConqueror在威廉统治下的英国封建制度①UnderWilliam,thefeudalsysteminEnglandwascompletelyestablished在威廉统治下,英国的封建制度得到完全确立;②Inthissystem,theKingownedallthelandpersonally根据此制度,国王拥有全国所有土地;③WilliamgavehisbaronslargeestatesinEnglandinreturnforapromiseofmilitaryserviceandaproportionoftheland’sproduce威廉把英国的大片土地分给贵族,条件是贵族保证服役和交租;④Theseestateswerescatteredfarandwideoverthecountry,sothatthosewhoheldthemcouldnoteasilycombinetorebeltheking贵族的这些地产分散于各处,这样土地拥有者就不易联合起来反叛国王;⑤Thebaronsparceledouthislandtothelessernobles,knightsandfreemen,alsoinreturnforgoodsandservices贵族又把土地分配给小贵族,骑士和自由民,同样要他们交租和服役;⑥Atthebottomofthefeudalscalewerethevilleinsorserfs在封建等级底层的是农奴;⑦OnepeculiarfeatureofthefeudalsystemofEnglandwasthatalllandownersmusttaketheoathofallegiance,notonlytotheirimmediatelord,butalsototheking英国封建制独有的特色就是,无论是土地承租人还是二佃户,都必须要宣誓效忠于直接领主,而且要效忠于国王.WilliamreplacedtheWitanwiththeGrandCouncil.威廉用大议会取代了贤人会议.Inordertohaveareliablerecordofallhislands,histenantsandtheirpossessions,WilliamsenthisclerkstocompileapropertyrecordknownasDomesdayBook,whichwascompletedin1086.为了使所有的土地,佃户和他们的财产记录可靠,威廉派官员编了一本财产清册,称为末日审判书2.ContentsandthesignificanceoftheGreatCharter大宪章的内容及意义AlsoknownastheMagnaCarta,GreatCharterwassignedbyKingJohnin1215underthepressofthebarons.大宪章是约翰国王1215年在封建贵族压力下签定的.Itconsistsof63clauses.Itsimportantprovisionsareasfollows大宪章共有63条:①notaxshouldbemadewithouttheapprovaloftheGrandCouncil没有大议会批准不得征税;②nofreemanshouldbearrested,imprisoned,ordeprivedofhispropertyexceptbythelawoftheland除依照法律,不得随意逮捕,拘禁自由民,不依照土地法不得剥夺其财产;③theChurchshouldpossessallitsrights,togetherwithfreedomofelections教会拥有的权利和选举自由不受侵犯;④Londonandothertownsshouldretaintheirancientrightsandprivileges伦敦和其它城市应保留其古老的权利和特权;⑤thereshouldbethesameweightandmeasuresthroughoutthecountry全国应统一度量衡.AlthoughtheGreatCharterhaslongbeenpopularlyregardedasthefoundationofEnglishliberties,itwasastatementofthefeudalandlegalrelationshipbetweentheCrownandthebarons,aguaranteeofthefreedomoftheChurchandalimitationofthepowersoftheking.ThespiritoftheGreatCharterwasthelimitationofthepowersoftheking,keepingthemwithintheboundsofthefeudallawoftheland.尽管长期普遍认为大宪章是英国自由的基础,但它只是国王与贵族之间的封建与法律关系,保证教会的自由,限制国王的权力.大宪章的精神是限制王权,置王权于封建法律的约束下.3.TheoriginsoftheEnglishParliament英国议会的起源In1258,thebarons,underSimondeMontfort,forcedHenryⅢandhissonPrinceEdwardtosweartoaccepttheProvisionsofOxford.Later,HenryrefusedtoconfirmtotheProvisionsofOxford,thusacivilwarbrakeoutbetweentheking’ssupportersandthebaronialarmyledbySimondeMontfort.1258年,贵族们在西蒙德孟福尔的领导下迫使国王和他的儿子爱德华王子宣誓接受"牛津协定".亨利拒绝批准牛津协定,国王的支持者和西蒙德孟福尔领导的封建主组成的军队之间爆发了内战.TheGreatCouncilisknowntobetheprototypeofthecurrentBritishParliament.In1265,SimondeMontfortsummonedtheGreatCouncil,togetherwithtwoknightsfromeachcountryandtwocitizensfromeachtown.,ameetingwhichhasseenastheearliestparliament.ItlaterdevelopedintotheHouseofLordsandtheHouseofCommonasaparliament.大议会是当今英国议会的原型.1265年,西门德孟福尔召开大议会,各县有两名骑士,各镇有两名市民参加,此次会议被看作是最早的议会.大议会发展到后来演变成议会.分为上议院和下议院Itsmainrolewastoofferadvice,nottomakedecisions.Therewerestillnoelections,noparties,andthemostimportantpartofParliamentwastheHouseofLords.其作用是咨询而非决定,也没有选举和政党.议会的最重要的部分是上议院4.TheHundredYears'WarwithFranceanditsconsequences百年战争及其结果WhenEdwardIIIclaimedtheFrenchCrownbuttheFrenchrefusedtorecognize,thewarbrokeout.爱德华三世宣布要继承法国王位,但法国人民拒绝承认,于是引发了百年战争.TheHundredYears’WarwithFrancereferstothewarbetweenEnglandandFrancethatlastedintermittentlyfrom1337to1453.Thecausesofthewarwerepartlyterritorialandpartlyeconomic.TheterritorialcauseswererelatedwiththepossessionbytheEnglishkingsofthelargeduchyofAquitaine,whiletheFrenchkingscovetedthislargeslice.TheeconomiccauseswereconnectedwithclothmanufacturingtownsinFlanders,whichweretheimporterofEnglishwool,buttheywereloyaltotheFrenchkingpolitically.Besides,England'sdesiretostopFrancefromgivingaidtoScotsandagrowingsenseofnationalismweretheothercauses.百年战争指1337年到1453年英法之间一场断断续续的战争.战争的起因既有领土因素又有经济因素.领土起因尤其是与英国国王拥有法国阿奎丹大片的公爵领地有密切关系,随着法国国王势力日增,他们日益渴望占领这片从他们领土内被分割出去的土地.经济原因则与弗兰德斯有关.弗兰德斯地区生产棉布的城镇是英国羊毛的主要进口地,但这些城镇在政治上却效忠法国国王.其他原因还有英国试图阻止法国帮助苏格兰人,以及不断觉醒的民族意识.Whenthewarended,CalaiswastheonlypartofFrancethatstillinthehandsofEnglish.战争结束的时候只有加来港还被英军占领.Consequences:TheexpulsionoftheEnglishfromFranceisregardedasablessingforbothcountries:hadtheyremained,thesuperiorsizeandwealthofFrancewouldcertainlyhavehinderedthedevelopmentofaseparateEnglishnationalidentity,whileFrancewashinderedsolongasaforeignpoweroccupiedsomuchFrenchterritory.战争的结果:把英国人赶出了法国对两个国家都是幸事:若英国人继续留在法国,那么法国人在领土和财富上所占的优势必然会阻碍英国作为一个独立民族的发展;而法国如被外国势力占领了大量的领土,其民族特性的发展也要长期受阻.HenryⅤrenewedthewarin1415andwonacrushingvictoryatArgencourt.HewasrecognizedtotheFrenchthronein1420.Afterhisdeath,theFrench,encouragedbyJoanofArc,finallydrovetheEnglishoutofFrance.亨利五世在1415年重新发动战争.在阿根科特战役中大胜.他在1420年成为法国国王.亨利死后,法国人民在圣女贞德的鼓舞下,最终把英军驱逐出法国.5.ConsequencesoftheBlackDeath黑死病的影响TheBlackDeathwasthemodernnamegiventothedeadlyepidemicdiseasespreadbyratfleasacrossEuropeinthe14thcentury.ItsweptthroughEnglandinthesummerof1348withoutwarningand,mostimportantly,withoutanycure.ItreducedEngland’spopulationfromfourmilliontotwomillion(aboutonehalfandonethirdofthepopulationwaskilled)bytheendofthe14thcentury.黑死病是现代名称,指老鼠身上的跳蚤传播的致命的淋巴腺鼠疫引起的传染性疾病.14世纪传播了到欧洲.1348年夏天横扫全英国,事先毫无预兆,而更重要的是无药可救.英国的人口在14世纪末从400万锐减至200万.TheeconomicconsequencesoftheBlackDeathwerefar-reaching.Asaresultoftheplague,muchlandwasleftuntendedandtherewasaterribleshortageoflabour.Landownerstendedtochangefromarabletosheep-farming,whichrequiredlesslabour.Thesurvivingpeasantshadbetterbargainningpowerandwereinapositiontochangetheirserfdomintopaidlabour.Sosomelandlords,unableorunwillingtopayhigherwages,triedtoforcepeasantsbackintoserfdom.In1351thegovernmentissuedaStatuteofLabourerswhichmadeitacrimeforpeasantstoaskformorewagesorfortheiremployerstopaymorethantherateslaiddownbytheJusticesofthePeace.黑死病对经济造成的后果更为深远.鼠疫导致了大片土地无人照管和劳动力极度匮乏.地主只得把耕地改成对人力需求较少的牧场.幸存的农民处于有利的可以讨价还价的地位,他们从农奴变为雇佣劳动力。于是一些支付不起或不愿意支付较高工资的地主想方设法迫使农民重返农奴地位。1351年政府颁布“劳工法令”，规定农民们涨工资的要求，或者是雇主支付比地方官制订的工资水平要高的工资都是犯罪.Chapter4TransitiontotheModernAge向现代英国的过渡(1455-1688)1.ThenatureandconsequencesoftheWarsoftheRoses玫瑰战争ThenameWarsoftheRoseswas,infact,coinedbya19thcenturynovelistSirWalterScott.Thiswasawarbetweentherichandambitiousnobles.玫瑰战争这个词是19世纪的大作家瓦尔特斯考特创造的.这是一场富人和野心勃勃的贵族之间的战争.ItwasreferredtothesebattlesbetweenthegreatHouseofLancaster,symbolizedbytheredrose,andthatofYork,symbolizedbythewhite,from1455to1485.AlthoughtheWarsoftheRoseswerewagedintermittentlyforthirtyyears,ordinarypeoplewerelittleaffected.Feudalismreceiveditsdeathblow.Nolessthan80noblesofroyalbloodwerekilledinthewars.Thegreatmedievalnobilitywasmuchweakenedanddiscredited.Theking’spowerbecamesupreme.它是指从1455年到1485年,以红玫瑰为象征的兰开斯特大家族和以白玫瑰为象征的约克家族之间战争.虽然玫瑰战争断断续续进行了30年,但普通民众所受影响甚微.封建制度却遭受了致命打击,不少于80位皇室血统的贵族阵亡.中世纪的贵族势力被大大削弱,名誉扫地.至此,国王的权利变得至高无上.Afterthewars,kingHenryTudorreplacedkingRichardⅢtoruleEngland.玫瑰战争后,亨利都铎取代了理查德三世统治英国.2.HenryⅧandtheEnglishReformation亨利八世和英国的宗教改革HenryⅧwasaboveallresponsibleforthereligiousreformoftheChurch亨利八世是宗教改革的最重要的责任者.Therewere3maincauses:①adesireforchangeandreformintheChurchhadbeengrowingformanyyearsandnow,encouragedbythesuccessofMartinLuther,manypeoplebelieveditstimehadcome期望教会改革已有多年,现在又受马丁路德成功的鼓舞,许多人认为时机已到;②theprivilegeandwealthoftheclergywerealsoresented人们痛恨教职人员的特权和财富;③Henryneedsmoney亨利需要钱.ThereformbeganasastruggleforadivorceandendedinfreedomfromthePapacy.HenryVIIIwantedtodivorceCatherineofAragonbecauseshecouldnotproduceamaleheirforhim.ButthePoperefusedtoannulhismarriage.Henry’sreformswastogetridoftheEnglishChurch’sconnectionwiththePope,andtomakeanindependentChurchofEngland.HemadethisbreakwithRomegraduallybetween1529and1534.HedissolvedallofEngland’smonasteriesandnunneriesbecausetheyweremoreloyaltothePopethantotheirEnglishkings,andpasttwolawsastheActofsuccessionof1534andtheActofSupremacyof1535madehisreformpossible.HeestablishedthechurchofEnglandasthenationalchurchofthecountry,andhemadehimselfthesupremeheadofthechurchofEngland.改革以争取离婚而开始,以脱离教皇而告终.亨利八世想与阿拉贡的凯瑟琳离婚因为她没有生下男嗣,但是教皇拒绝了.亨利改革的目的是摆脱英国教会与教皇的联系,成立独立的英格兰教会.1529年至1534年间逐渐地与罗马脱离了关系.他解散了所有英国的修道院和修女院,因为后者对教皇比对英国国王更忠诚.1534年的《继位法》和1535年的《至尊法案》使改革具有了可行性.1535年他获“英格兰教会最高首脑”之称号.TheEnglishReformationhad3importanteffects:TheystressedthepowerofthemonarchandcertainlystrengthenedHenry’sposition;Parliamenthadneverdonesuchalongandimportantpieceofworkbefore,itsimportancegrewasaresult.HisattackonthePope’spowerencouragedmanycriticsofabusesoftheCatholicChurch.EnglandwasmovingawayformCatholicismtowardsprotestaintism.改革的三大影响:亨利的改革强调了君主权力,自然加强了亨利的地位;议会以往从未做过如此漫长而重要的工作,自然其重要性也有所加强;他对教皇权力的打击鼓舞许多人批评指责天主教会,并希望从天主教转向新教.3.ElizabethIandParliament伊莉莎白一世和国会Generallyspeaking,ElizabethwasabletoworkwithParliament,buttherelationshipwithParliamentwasoftenturbulent.Parliamentwisheditscustomaryrightoffreespeechconfirmedinwriting;anditwantedtobeallowedtostartdiscussionofimportantquestionsatwill,notbyinvitation.Elizabethwouldnotpermiteitherthing.Elizabethtreated5questionsaspersonalandprivate.Thesewereherreligion,hermarriage,herforeignpolicy,thesuccessiontothethroneandherfinance.伊丽莎白能与议会合作,但与议会的关系经常动荡不安.议会希望以书面形式确认议会按惯例已享有的言论自由,也希望能随意地讨论重大问题,而无需经过女王邀请.伊丽莎白一件也未批准.伊丽莎白把五个问题看作是个人问题,那就是她的宗教,婚姻,对外政策,王位的继承和财产.4.Elizabeth'sreligiousreformandherforeignpolicy伊莉莎白的宗教改革和外交政策Elizabeth'sreligiousreformwasacompromiseofviews.ShebrokeMary'stieswithRomeandrestoredherfather'sindependentChurchofEngland,i.e.keepingtoCatholicdoctrinesandpracticesbuttobefreeofthePapalcontrol.HerreligioussettlementwasunacceptabletoboththeextremeProtestantsknownasPuritansandtoardentCatholics.伊丽莎白的宗教改革是各种观点的妥协.她中断了玛丽女王与罗马建立的关系,恢复了她父亲建立的独立的英格兰教会也就是说她保持天主教的教条及做法,但不受教皇控制.她的宗教和解既不被极端的清教徒所接受,也不为虔诚的天主教徒所接受.Fornearly30yearsElizabethsuccessfullyplayedoffagainsteachotherthetwogreatCatholicpowers,FranceandSpain,andpreventedEnglandfromgettinginvolvedinanymajorEuropeanconflict.Throughhermarriageallianceswhichwerenevermaterialized,ElizabethmanagedtomaintainafriendlyrelationshipwithFrance.SoEnglandwadabletofacethedangerfromSpain.In1588,theEnglishnavydefeatedtheSpanishArmada.ThedestructionoftheSpanishArmadashowedEngland’superiorityasanavalpower.近30年的时间,伊莉莎白成功地令两大天主教强国法国和西班牙互相斗杀,从而免于英国卷入任何主要的欧洲国的冲突.通过她从未具体化的联姻,伊莉莎白设法与法国维持友好关系,因此英国能面对来自西班牙的危险.1588年,英国海军击败了西班牙舰队.西班牙无敌舰队的灭亡表明了英国作为海上强国的优势.5.DistinctivefeaturesoftheEnglishRenaissance英国文艺复兴的特点InEngland,theRenaissancebeganin1485andithad5characteristics英国的文艺复兴起始与1485年.五个特点:①EnglishculturewasrevitalizednotsomuchdirectlybytheclassicsasbycontemporaryEuropeansundertheinfluenceoftheclassics英国文化的复兴不全是直接接受古典文化的影响,而更多的是受当时有文艺复兴思想的欧洲人的影响;②EnglandasaninsularcountryfollowedacourseofsocialandpoliticalhistorywhichwastoagreatextentindependentofthecourseofhistoryelsewhereinEurope作为岛国,英国的社会和政治历史进程在很大程度上独立于欧洲其它国家;③Owingtothegreatgeniusofthe14thcenturypoetChaucer,thenativeliteraturewassufficientlyvigorousandexperiencedinassimilatingforforeigninfluenceswithoutbeingsubjectedbythem.由于14世纪伟大的天才诗人乔叟的出现,英国本土文学相当有生气,善于融合外来影响而未被同化;④EnglishRenaissance’sliteratureisprimarilyartistic,ratherthanphilosophicalandscholarly.⑤TheRenaissancecoincidedwiththeReformationinEngland英国文艺复兴文学首先是艺术的,其次才是哲学的和学术的⑤文艺复兴与英国宗教改革同时发生.6.TheCivilWarsandtheirconsequences内战及其影响BecauseoftheabsoluteruleofCharles,theconfrontationbetweenCharlesIandtheParliamentdevelopedintothecivilwar.ThewarbeganonAugust22,1642andendedin1651.CharlesIwascondemnedtodeath.由于查尔斯的“君权神授”统治权,他与议会的对峙发展成了内战战争开始于1642年8月22日,结束于1651年.最后查尔斯被处死In1642,thefirstEnglishCivilWarbeganbetweenKingCharlesandParliament.Theking'smenwerecalledCavaliers,andthesupportersofParliamentwerecalledRoundheadsbecauseoftheirshorthaircuts.1642年,查尔斯一世和议会之间的第一次内战开始.国王的支持者被称为"骑士派";支持议会者因为留短发被称为"圆颅派".TheEnglishCivilWarisalsocalledthePuritanRevolution,becausetheking'sopponentsweremainlyPuritans,andhissupporterschieflyEpiscopalianandCatholic.IthasbeenseenasaconflictbetweentheparliamentandtheKing,butalsoaconflictbetweentheeconomicinterestsoftheurbanmiddleclassesandthetraditionaleconomicinterestsoftheCrown.Theeconomicinterestsoftheurbanmiddleclassescoincidedwiththeirreligious(Puritan)ideologywhiletheCrown’straditionaleconomicinterestscorrespondinglyalliedwithAnglicanreligiousbelief.TheEnglishCivilWarnotonlyoverthrewfeudalsysteminEnglandbutalsoshookthefoundationofthefeudalruleinEurope.Itisgenerallyregardedasthebeginningofmodernworldhistory.英国内战又称为清教徒革命.因为国王的敌人主要是清教徒,而支持者主要是天主教派成员和天主教徒.这是议会和国王间的冲突,也是城市中产阶级的经济利益与皇室传统经济利益之间的冲突.城市中产阶级经济利益刚好与他们的宗教(清教)思想吻合.相应地,皇室传统的经济利益则与圣公会教的宗教信仰结合在一起.英国内战不仅推翻了英国的封建制度,而且动摇了欧洲封建统治的基础.英国内战通常被看作是现代世界史的开端.7.TheCommonwealthunderOliverCromwellFrom1649to1658EnglandwascalledaCommonwealth.ItwasruledfirstbyOliverCromwellasLordProtector(in1653,hebecameLordProtectoroftheCommonwealthofEngland).从1649年到1658年,英国被称为共和国.由奥利弗克伦威尔护国主统治(1653年他成为英格兰共和国的护国主).OneofCromwell'sfirstactswastocrushwithoutmercyarebellioninIreland,killingalltheinhabitantsofthetownsofDroghedaandWexford.AnotherwasthesuppressionoftheLevellers,proposedaradicalpoliticalprogrammenotatalltohistaste.克伦威尔的举措之一就是毫不留情地镇压爱尔兰的起义,杀死了德洛莎达和威克斯福两镇的所有居民.另一举措是镇压平均派,原因是他们提出的激进政治方案不合克伦威尔的口味.Otheraspectsofthisperiodwere:establishmentofcoloniesandcolonialtrade,religioustolerationforall,andgreaterunderstandingoftheeconomy.这时期其他方面的特点是:建立殖民地和进行殖民贸易;容忍所有宗教;对经济更加了解.8.TheRestorationandtheGloriousRevolution复辟和光荣革命TheParliamentelectedin1660resolvedthecrisisbyaskingthelateKing'ssontoreturnfromhisexileinFranceasKingCharlesII.TheRestoration,asitwascalled,wasrelativelysmooth,andalthoughnotaperfectking,CharlesIIwasabletocapitalizeongovernmentgoodwilltowardshim.BritainprosperedunderCharles.1660年选出的议会要求上一任国王的儿子从长期流亡地法国回国作国王,称查尔斯二世,从而解决了危机.所谓的王朝复辟相对顺利.尽管查尔斯二世不是完美国王,但他却能利用政府对他的善意.在查尔斯的统治下英国繁荣发展.In1685CharlesIIdiedandwassucceededbyhisbrotherJamesII.JameswasbroughtupinexileinEurope,wasaCatholic.Hehopedtorulewithoutgivinguphispersonalreligiousvies.ButEnglandwasnomoretolerantofaCatholickingin1688than40yearsago.SotheEnglishpoliticiansrejectedJamesII,andappealedtoaProtestantkingWilliamofOrange,James'sDutchnephewandthehusbandofMary,James'sdaughter,toinvadeandtaketheEnglishthrone.WilliamlandedatTorbayin1688andmarcheduponLondon.InEnglandthistakeoverwasrelativelysmooth,withnobloodshed,noranyexecutionoftheking.ThisbecameknownastheGloriousRevolution.1685年查尔斯二世去世,由其弟詹姆斯二世继位.詹姆斯二世从小在欧洲流亡长大,是个天主教徒.他希望不放弃个人宗教信仰统治国家.但是1688的英国已不象40年前那样能容忍天主教徒当国王了.英国政客反对詹姆斯二世,他们呼吁信奉新教的国王奥兰治亲王威廉入侵英国夺取王位,威廉是詹姆斯的荷兰侄子,也是他的女婿.1688年11月15日威廉在托尔比登陆并占领伦敦.这一占领相当顺利,既未流血也未处死国王,所以就称为"光荣革命".WilliamandMaryjointlyacceptedtheBillofRightswhich,excludinganyRomanCatholicfromthesuccession,confirmedtheprincipleofparliamentarysupremacyandguaranteedfreespeechwithinboththeHouseofLordsandtheHouseofCommons.威廉和玛丽共同接受了《权利法案》,此法案剥夺了罗马天主教徒的继承王位的权利,确立了议会权利至高无上的原则,保证了上下两院中的自由言论权.Chapter7GovernmentandAdministration英国政府机构1.TheBritishConstitution英国宪法TheUnitedKingdomisaconstitutionalmonarchy:theheadofstateisakingoraqueen.Inpractice,theSovereignreigns,butdoesn’trule:theUnitedKingdomisgoverned,inthenameoftheSovereignbyHisorHerMajesty’sGovernment.TheSystemofparliamentarygovernmentisnotbasedonawrittenconstitution.ThereisnowrittenconstitutionintheUnitedKingdom,thatis,theBritishconstitutionisnotsetoutinanysingledocument.Itismadeupofstatutelaw,commonlawandconventions.TheJudiciarydeterminescommonlawandinterpretsstatutes.联合王国是君主立宪制国家,国家的首脑是国王或女王.实际上君主统而不治.联合王国以君的名义,由国王或女王陛下政府治理.英国的议会制度并不是基于成文宪法.英国宪法不由单一文件构成,而由成文法,习惯法和惯例组成.司法部门裁定习惯法或解释成文法.2.ConstitutionalMonarchyinBritain英国君主立宪制Themonarchyistheoldestinstitutionofgovernment,goingbacktoatleastthe9thcentury.Thecontinuityofthemonarchyhasbeenbrokenonlyoncewhen,between1649to1660,arepublicwasestablished.君主政体是最古老的政府机构,至少可以追溯到9世纪.除了1649年至1660年间建立过一个共和国而中断过一次外,很少改变.Althoughthemonarchyhassurvived,itseemsthatithasnorealpowertoday.Themonarch’spowerarelimitedbylawandParliament.ConstitutionalmonarchybeganaftertheGloriousRevolutionin1688.今天尽管君主政体仍然存在,但似乎已无实权.它的权力受限于法律和议会.君主立宪制是从1688年的光荣革命后开始.TheQueen’shusbandistheDukeofEdinburgh,andhereldestsonisthePrinceofWales.Whenadaughtersucceedstothethrone,shebecomesQueenRegnant,andhasthesamepowersasaking.女王的的丈夫是爱丁堡公爵,长子是威尔士亲王,女儿继位则成为在位女王,与国王享有同等权力.ElizabethII,hertitleintheUnitedKingdomis"ElizabeththeSecond,bytheGraceofGodoftheUnitedKingdomofGreatBritainandNorthernIrelandandHerOtherRealmsandTerritories,Queen,HeadoftheCommonwealth,DefenderoftheFaith".伊莉莎白二世,她的全称是"上帝神佑,大布列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国以及她的其他领土和领地的女王,英联邦元首,国教保护者伊莉莎白二世".TheQueenisthesymbolofthewholenation.Inlaw,Sheisheadoftheexecutive,anintegralpartofthelegislature,headofthejudiciary,thecommander-in-chiefofallthearmedforcesoftheCrownandthe“supremegovernor”oftheestablishedChurchofEngland.女王是国家的象征.从法律上讲,她是行政首脑,立法机构的组成部分,司法首脑,全国武装部队总司令,英国国教"至高无上的领袖".TheCivilListisanannualgrantapprovedbyParliament.ThegrantismadetotheBritishSovereignandmembersoftheroyalfamily.Itisusedtocovertheexpenseinvolvedincarryingouttheirpublicduties.InBritain,theQueen’sprivateexpenditureasSovereignismetfromthePrivyPurse,whichisfinancedmainlyfromtherevenueoftheDuchyofLancaster.在英国,女王的君主开销由王室内库支付,王室内库主要来自兰开斯特郡的王室领地收入.3.TheBritishParliamentanditsfunctions英国的议院和它的作用TheUnitedKingdomisaunitary,notafederal,state.ParliamentconsistsoftheSovereign,theHouseofLordsandtheHouseofCommons.AParliamenthasamaximumdurationoffiveyears.英国是中央集权国家,而不是联邦制国家.议会由君主,上议院和下议院组成.一届议会的最长任期是5年.ThemainfunctionsofParliamentare:议会的主要作用是:①topasslaws通过立法;②toprovide,byvotingfortaxation,themeansofcarryingontheworkofgovernment投票批准征税,为政府工作提供资金;③toexaminegovernmentPolicyandadministrations,includingproposalforexpenditure检查政府政策和行政管理,包括拨款提议;④todebatethemajorissuesoftheday当天的议题辩论.TheHouseofParliamentwererebuiltbetween1835and1857afterhavingbeendestroyedbyfireandweredesignedbySirCharlesBarry.ThepublicareadmittedtotheStrangers’GalleriesintheHouseofLordsandtheHouseofCommons.议会大厦被大火烧毁后,于1835年重建,是查尔斯巴里设计的.公众可以到上下议院的公众旁听席旁听会议辩论.TheHouseofLordsismadeupoftheLordsSpiritualandtheLordsTemporal.TheLordsSpiritualaretheArchbishopsofCanterburyandYorkand24seniorbishopsoftheChurchofEngland.ThemainfunctionoftheHouseofLordsistobringthewideexperienceofitsmembersintotheprocessoflawmaking.Inotherwords,thenon-electedHouseistoactasachamberofrevision,complementingbutnotrivalingtheelectHouse.上议院由神职贵族议员和世俗贵族议员组成.神职贵族议员是指坎特伯雷大主教和约克大主教以及英国教会的24位高级主教.它的主要作用是用议员的丰富经验帮助立法.换而言之,非选举的上议院是修正议院,对由选举产生的下议院立案进行补充而并非反对.TheGentlemanUsheroftheBlackRod,usuallyknownas“BlackRod”,isresponsibleforsecurity,accommodationandservicesintheHouseofLords’partofthePalaceofWestminster.“黑杖侍卫”负责威斯敏斯特宫中上议院的安全,膳宿和服务.TheHouseofCommoniselectedbyuniversaladultsuffrageandconsistsof651MembersofParliament(MPs).ItisintheHouseofCommonsthattheultimateauthorityforlaw-makingresides.下议院由成人普选产生,由651名议员组成.下议院拥有最终立法权.Britainisdivided651constituencies.EachoftheconstituenciesreturnsonemembertotheHouseofCommons.AgeneralElectionmustbeheldeveryfiveyearsandisoftenheldatmorefrequentintervals.英国被划分为651个选区,每个选区选一名下议院议员.大选必须五年举行一次,但经常不到五年就进行一次选举.BritishcitizensandcitizensofotherCommonwealthcountries,togetherwithcitizensoftheIrish-Republic,maystandforelectionasMpsprovidedtheyareaged21oroverandarenotdisqualified.Acandidatemustdeposit500,whichisreturnedifheorshereceives5%ormoreofthevotecast.英国公民和其他英联邦国家公民以及爱尔兰共和国公民,都可以竞选议员,条件是年满21岁以上和没有被取消资格.候选人必须交纳500英镑保证金,若得到投票总数的5%以上的选票则可以退还.Britainhasanumberofparties,butthereareonlytwomajorparties.ThesetwopartiesaretheConservativePartyandtheLabourParty.Since1945,eithertheConservativePartyortheLabourPartyhasheldpower.ThepartywhichwinssufficientseatsataGeneralElectiontocommandamajorityofsupportersintheHouseofCommonsusuallyformstheGovernment.TheleaderofthemajoritypartyisappointedPrimeMinisterbytheSovereign.ThepartywhichwinsthesecondlargestnumberofseatsbecomestheofficialOpposition,withitsownleaderand“shadowcabinet”.TheaimsoftheOppositionaretocontributetotheformulationofpolicyandlegislationbyconstructivecriticism,toopposegovernmentproposalsitconsidersobjectionable,toseekamendmentstogovernmentBills,andtoputforwarditsownpoliciesinordertoimproveitschancesofwinningthenextgeneralelection.英国有很多政党，但有两个主要的政党—-保守党和工党。从1945年以来，两党一直轮流执政，在大选中获多数议席因而在下议院拥有多数支持者的政党组建政府，多数党领袖由君主任命为首相。获得第二多数议席的政党则正式成为“反对党”，有自己的领袖和影子内阁。反对党的目的是对政策和立法的制定提出建设性批评,反对它认为不对的提议,修正政府议案,提出自己的方针政策以增加瑕疵大选时本党获胜的机会.4.TheBritishGovernment英国政府HerMajesty’sGovernmentisthebodyofministersresponsiblefortheconductofnationalaffairs.ThePrimeMinisterisappointedbytheQueen.Heisalso,bytradition,FirstLordoftheTreasuryandMinisterfortheCivilService.Bymodernconvention,thePrimeMinisteralwayssitsintheHouseofCommons.HisofficalresidenceisNo.10DowningStreetinLondon.ThePrimeMinisterpresidesovertheCabinet,isresponsiblefortheallocationoffunctionsamongministersandinformstheQueenatregularmeetingsofgeneralbusinessoftheGovernment.CabinetmembersholdmeetingsunderthechairmanshipofthePrimeMinisterforafewhourseachweektodecideGovernmentpolicyonmajorissues.女王陛下政府是由负责处理全国事务的大臣组成的机构.女王任命首相.根据传统,首相也是首席财政大臣和文职部大臣,根据现代惯例,首相必须是下议院议员.他的官邸是伦敦的唐宁