版权说明:本文档由用户提供并上传,收益归属内容提供方,若内容存在侵权,请进行举报或认领
文档简介
语言学概论作业
Chapter1
1.Howdoyouinterpretthefollowingdefinitionoflinguistics:linguisticsisthe
scientificstudyoflanguage?
Tounderstandthisdefinition,weshouldfocusonthreewordsinthissentence:
scientific,studyandlanguage.Firstofall,scientificheremeansastudywhichis
basedonthesystematicinvestigationoflinguisticdata,conductedwithreference
tosomegeneraltheoryoflanguagestructure.Thelinguiststudiesittodiscover
thenatureandrulesoftheunderlyinglanguagesystem.Secondly,theword
studyherereferstoinvestigationorexamination.Thirdly,iMn^ua^ehereis
generalterm.Itreferstoanyhumanlanguage,ChinesespokenbytheChinese,
EnglishbytheEnglishpeople,GermanbytheGermans,orevenEsperanto,an
artificiallanguage.Languageherealsomeansthedialectsorvariantsofa
commonlanguagesuchasCantonese,avariantofMandarin.Therefore,this
wholesentencecanbeinterpretedthatlinguisticsisalanguagestudythroughthe
systematicinvestigationoflinguisticdataandsomegeneraltheoryoflanguage
structure.
2.Whatarethemajorbranchesoflinguistics?Whatdoeseachofthemstudy?
Phonetics:thestudyofsoundsusedinlinguisticcommunication.ltdescribes
individualspeechsoundsandindicatestheirphysicalorphonetic
properties.
Phonoloey:itstudiesthewaysinwhichthesesoundsformpatternsand
systemsandhowtheyworktoconveymeaninginthesystemof
language.
Morphology:afieldoflinguisticsfocusedonthestudyoftheformsand
formationofwordsinalanguage
Syntax:Asetofrulesthatgovernhowwordsarecombinedtoformphrasesand
sentences.
Pragmatics:thestudyoftheuseoflanguageinasocialcontext.
3.Inwhatbasicwaysdoesmodernlinguisticsdifferfromtraditionalgrammar?
①Linguisticsisdescriptivewhiletraditionalgrammarisprescriptive.
②Modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewritten.
(3)Modernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammaralsointhatitdoesnot
forcelanguagesintoaLatin-basedframework.
4.Ismodernlinguisticsmainlysynchronicordiachronic?Why?
Inmodernlinguistics,thelinguistsseemtogiveprioritytosynchronicstudies
otherthandiachronicones.Becauseitisbelievedthatunlessthevariousstatesof
alanguageindifferenthistoricalperiodsaresuccessfullystudied,itwouldbe
difficulttodescribethechangesthathavetakenplaceinitshistorical
development.Thatistosay,thediachronicstudiesshouldbebasedon
synchronicones.Synchronicdescriptionsareoftenthoughtofasbeing
descriptionofalanguageinitscurrentexistence.Andmostlinguisticstudiesare
ofthistype.
5.Forwhatreasonsdoesmodernlinguisticsgiveprioritytospeechratherthanto
writing?
①Thewritingsystemisinventedbyitsuserswhenneeded
②Todaytherearelanguageswhichcanonlybespokenbutnotwritten
©Speechplaysagreaterrolethanwritingintermsoftheamountofinformation
conveyedindailycommunication
④Eachhumanbeingfirstacquiresspeechandthenlearnswriting
⑤Modernlinguisticstendstopaymoreattentiontoauthenticspeechasspoken
languagerevealsmoretruefeaturesofhumanspeechwhilewrittenlanguageis
onlythe“revised“recordofspeech.
6.HowisSaussure'sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparolesimilartoChomsky's
distinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance?
Theyaresimilarintwoaspects:thedefinitionandthecontentofstudy.
Ononehand,Saussuredefineslangueastheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedby
allthemembersofaspeechcommunity,andparoleastherealizationoflangue
inactualuse.Chomskydefinescompetenceastheidealuser'sknowledgeofthe
rulesofhislanguage,andperformancetheactualrealizationofthisknowledgein
linguisticcommunication.Wecanseethatlangueandcompetencebothreferto
theabstractissue,conventionsandknowledge,andparoleandperformanceboth
aretheiractualrealization,theconcreteuse.
Ontheotherhand,inSaussure'sopinion,whatlinguistsshoulddoistoabstract
languefromparoleasparoleistoovariedandconfusing.Andthisisthesameas
Chomsky.Hethinkslinguistsshouldstudytheidealspeaker'scompetence,not
hisperformance,whichistoohaphazardtobestudied.
7.Whatcharacteristicsoflanguagedoyouthinkshouldbeincludedinagood,
comprehensivedefinitionoflanguage?
Theimportantcharacteristicswhichshouldbeincludedinagooddefinitionof
languageareseparately:systematic,arbitraryandvocal.
Firstofall,languageisasystem.Ithasitsownsetofrulesforpeopletoabide
by,orpeoplewillusethelanguageinawrongway.
Second,languageisarbitraryinthesensethatthereisnointrinsicconnection
betweenalinguisticsymbolandwhatthesymbolstandsfor.Thefactthat
differentlanguageshavedifferentwordsforthesameobjectisagoodillustration
ofthearbitrarynatureoflanguge.
Third,languageisvocalbecausetheprimarymediumforalllanguagesissound.
8.Whatarethemainfeaturesofhumanlanguagethathavebeenspecifiedby
C.Hocketttoshowthatitisessentiallydifferentfromanimalcommunication
system?
1)Arbitrariness:nonatural/motivated/logicalrelationshipbetweenthesignand
whatthesignstandsfor.
2)Productivity:providesopportunitiesforsendingmessagesthathavenever
beensentbeforeandforunderstandingnovelmessages.
3)Duality:languageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstuctures,ortwo
levels.
4)Displacement:canbeusedtorefertothingsrealorimagined,past,presentor
future
5)Culturaltransmission
9.Whatarethemajorfunctionsoflanguage?
□descriptivefunction
2)expressivefunction
3)socialfimction
Chapter3
1.Dividethefollowingwordsintotheirseparatemorphemesbyplacinga
betweeneachmorphemeandthenext:
a.microfilm:micro+film
b.bedraggled:be+draggle+ed
c.announcement:aniwimce+ment
d.predigestion:pre+digest+ion
e.telecommunication:tele+communicate+ion
f.forefather:fore+father
g.DSYchophysic:psycho+physi。
h.mechanist:mechan+ist
2.Thinkofthreemorphemesuffixes,givetheirmeaningandspecifythetypesof
stemtheymaybesuffixedto.Giveatleasttwoexamplesofeach.
1)suffix:-ing
meaning:denotingaverbalaction,aninstanceofthis,oritsresult
stemtype:addedtoverbs
examples:fighting:denotetheactionofbattle
building:denotetheactionofconsruction
2)suffix:-able
meaning:abletobe
stemtype:addedtoverbs
examples:avoidable:abletobepreventedfrom
calculable:abletobemeasuredorassessed
3)suffix:-ist
meaning:denotingamemberofaprofessionorbusinessactivity
stemtype:addedtonouns
examples:dramatist:apersonwhowritesplays
dentist:apersonwhotreatstheteethdisease
3.Thinkofthreemorphemeprefixes,givetheirmeaning,andspecifythetypesof
stemtheymaybeprefixedto.Giveatleasttwoexamplesofeach.
1)prefix:un-
meaning:denotingtheabsenceofaqualityorstate;not
stemtype:addedtonouns
examples:unacademic:notadoptingorcharacteristicofascholarly
approachorlanguage
unhappy:nothappy
2)prefix:anti-
meaning:opposedto;against
stemtype:addedtonouns
examples:anti-abortion:opposingorlegislatingagainstmedically
inducedabortion
anti-art:againstthetraditionalart
3)prefix:re-
meaning:oncemore;afresh;anew
stemtype:addedtoverbs
examples:restart:startoncemore
reaccustom:accustom(someone)tosomethingagain
4.Theitalicizedpartineachofthefollowingsentencesisaninflectionalmorpheme.
Studyeachinflectionalmorphemecarefullyandpointoutitsgrammatical
meaning.
l)Suemovesinhigh-societycirclesinLondon.
Thethirdpersonsingular
2)AtrafficwardenaskedJohntomovehiscar.
Thepasttense
3)TheclubhasmovedtoFriday,February22nd.
Thepresentperfect
4)Thebranchesofthetreesaremovingbackandforth.
Thepresentprogressive
5.Deteminewhetherthewordsineachofthefollowinggroupsarerelatedtoone
anotherbyprocessofinflectionorderivation.
a)go,goes,going,gone
processofinflection
b)discover,discovery,discoverer,discoverable,discoverability
processofderivation
c)inventor,inventor'sinventors,inventors'
processofinflection
d)democracy,democrat,democratic,democratize
processofderivation
6.Thefollowingsentencescontainbothderivationalandinflectionalaffixes.
Underlineallofthederivationalaffixesandcircletheinflectionalaffixes.
a)Thefarmer'scowsescaped.
Derivationalaffixes:-er
Inflectionalaffixes:'s,-s,-ed
b)Itwasraining.
Derivationalaffixes:none
Inflectionalaffixes:-ing
c)Thosesocksareinexpensive.
Derivationalaffixes:in-
Inflectionalaffixes:-s
d)Jimneedsthenewercopy.
Derivationalaffixes:-er
Inflectionalaffixes:-s
e)Thestrongestrowercontinued.
Derivationalaffixes:-est,-er
Inflectionalaffixes:-ed
f)Shequicklyclosedthebook.
Derivationalaffixes:-ly
Inflectionalaffixes:-ed
g)Thealphabetizationwentwell.
Derivationalaffixes:-ion
Inflectionalaffixes:went
Chapter5
1.Whatarethemajorviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaning?
1)ThenamingtheorywasproposedbytheancientGreekscholarPlato.The
linguisticformsorsymbols,inotherwords,thewordsusedinalanguageare
takentobelabelsoftheobjectstheystandfor;wordsarejustnamesor
labelsforthings.Thesemanticrelationshipholdingbetweenwordsand
thingsistherelationshipofnaming.
2)Theconceptualistview:Thisviewholdsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetween
alinguisticformandwhatitrefersto;rather,intheinterpretationofmeaning
theyarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.Thisisbest
illustratedbythesemantictrianglesuggestedbyOgdenandRichards:
3)Contextualism:RepresentativelyproposedbytheBritishlinguistJ.R.Firth
whohadbeeninfluencedbythePolishanthropologistMalinowskiandthe
GermanphilosopherWittgenstein.ltholdsthatmeaningshouldbestudiedin
termsofsituation,use,context-elementscloselylinkedwithlanguage
behavior.・••themeaningofawordisitsuseinthelanguage.
4)Behaviourism:BasedoncontextualistviewbyBloomfieldwhodrewon
behavioristpsychologyindefining“meaning”.Behavioristsattemptedto
definethemeaningofalanguagefromasthe“situationinwhichthe
speakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer.^^Thistheory,
somewhatclosetocontextualism,islinkedwithpsychologicalinterest.
2.WhatarethemajortypesofsynonymsinEnglish?
1)dialectalsynonyms......synonymsusedindifferentregional
2)Stylisticsynonyms:synonymsdifferinginstyle
3)Synonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning
4)Collocationalsynonyms:whatwordstheygotogetherwith
5)Semanticallydifferentsynonyms:differfromthewordsthemselves
3.Explainwithexamples“homonymy”,"polysemy",and"hyponymy".
1)Homonymy:Homonymyreferstothephenomenonthatwordshaving
differentmeaningshavethesameform,i.e.,differentwordsareidenticalin
soundorspelling,orinboth.Whentwowordsareidenticalinsound,they
arehomophones.Whentwowordsareidenticalinspelling,theyare
homographs.Whentowwordsareidenticalinbothsoundandspelling,they
arecompletehomonyms.Theexamplesareasfollowed:
Homophones:rain/reignnight/knightpiece/peace
Homographs:bowv./bown.tearv./tearn.
Completehomonyms:fastadj./fastv.
2)Polysemy:whiledifferentwordsmayhavethesameorsimilarmeaning,the
sameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.Thisiswhatwecall
polysemy,andsuchawordiscalledapolysemicword.Themorecommonly
usedawordis,themorelikelyithasacquiredmorethanonemeaning.For
example,thewordtablehasatleastsixmeaningswhenwelookitupinthe
dictionary:
1.apieceoffurniture
2.allthepeopleseatedatatable
3.thefoodthatisputonatable
4.athinflatpieceofstone,mental,wood,etc
5.orderlyarrangementoffacts,figures,etc
6.partofamachine-toolonwhichtheworkisputtobe
operatedon
3)Hyponymyreferstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,more
inclusivewordandamorespecificword.Thewordwhichismoregeneralin
meaningiscalledthesuperordinate,andthemorespecificwordsarecalled
itshyponyms.Hyponymsofthesamesuperordinateareco-hyponymsto
eachother.Forexample,
Superordiante:flower
Hyponyms:rose,tulip,carnation,lily,morninggolory
4.Howcanwordsoppositeinmeaningbeclassified?Towhichcategorydoeseach
ofthefollowingpairsofantonymsbelong?
(l)north/south(2)vacant/occupied(3)literate/illiterate④above/below
(§)doctor/patient⑥wide/narrow©poor/rich(§)father/daughter
Gradableantonyms:literate/illiteratewide/poor/rich
Complementaryantonyms:vacant/occupied
Relationalopposite:north/southdotor/patientfather/daughter
5.Identifytherelationsbetweenthefollowingpairsofsentences:
①Tom'swifeispregnant.Tomhasawife.
②Mysisterwillsoonbedivorced.Mysisterisamarriedwoman.
(3)Helikesseafood.Helikescrabs.
④Theyaregoingtohaveanotherbaby.Theyhaveachild.
XpresupposesY(YisaprerequisiteofX):①②④
XentailsY(YisanentailmentofX):③
6.Inwhatwayiscomponentialanalysissimilartotheanalysisofphonemesinto
distinctivefeatures?
Componentialanalysisisawayproposedbythestructuralsemanticiststo
analyzewordmeaning.Theapproachisbasedonthebeliefthatthemeaningofa
wordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeatures.And
thatissimilartotheanalysisofphonemesintodistinctivefeatures.
7.Whatisgrammaticality?Whatmightmakeagrammaticallymeaningfulsentence
semanticallymeaningless?
Thegrammaticalmeaningofasentencereferstoitsgrammaticality,especially
itsgrammaticalwell-formedness.Selectionalrestrictions,whichmeansthe
constraintsonwhatlexicalitemscangowithwhatothers,mightmakea
grammaticallymeaningfulsentencesemanticallymeaningless.
8.Trytoanalyzethefollowingsentencesintermsofpredicationanalysis:
①Themansellsice-cream.②Isthebabysleeping?
(3)Itissnowing.④Thetreegrowswell.
l.MAN,ICE-CREAM(SELL)
2.BABY(SLEEP)
3.(BESNOW)
4.TREE(GROW)
Chapter6PRAGMATICS
1.Whatdoespragmaticsstudy?Howdoesitdifferfromtraditional
semantics?
答:Generallyspeaking,pragmaticsisthestudyofmeaninginthe
context.Itstudiesmeaninginadynamicwayandasaprocess.Inorderto
haveasuccessfulcommunication,thespeakerandhearermusttakethe
contextintotheirconsiderationsoastoeffecttherightmeaningand
intention.Thedevelopmentandestablishmentpragmaticsin1960sand
1970sresultedmainlyfromtheexpansionofthestudysemantics.However,
itisdifferentfromthetraditionalsemantics.Themajordifferencebetween
themliesinthatpragmaticsstudiesmeaninginadynamicway,while
semanticsstudiesmeaninginastaticway.Pragmaticstakescontextinto
considerationwhilesemanticsdoesnot.Pragmaticstakescareoftheaspect
ofmeaningthatisnotaccountedforbysemantics.
2.Whyisthenotionofcontextessentialinthepragmaticstudyoflinguistic
communication?
答:Thenotionofcontextisessentialtothepragmaticstudyoflanguage.
Itisgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedbytheknowledgesharedbythe
speakerandthehearer.Variouscontinentsofsharedknowledgehavebeen
identified,e.g.knowledgeofthelanguagetheyuse,knowledgeofwhathas
beensaidbefore,knowledgeabouttheworldingeneral,knowledgeabout
thespecificsituationinwhichlinguisticcommunicationistakingplace,and
knowledgeabouteachother.Contextdeterminesthespeaker'suseof
languageandalsotheheater'sinterpretationofwhatissaidtohim.Without
suchknowledge,linguisticcommunicationwouldnotbepossible,and
withoutconsideringsuchknowledge,linguisticcommunicationcannotbe
satisfactorilyaccountedforinapragmaticsense.Lookatthefollowing
sentences:
(1)Howdiditgo?
⑵Itiscoldinhem.
(3)ItwasahotChristmasdaysowewentdowntothebeachinthe
afternoonandhadagoodtimeswimmingandsurfing.
Sentence(1)mightbeusedinaconversationbetweentwostudentstalking
aboutanexamination,ortwosurgeonstalkingaboutanoperation,orin
someothercontexts;(2)mightbesaidbythespeakertoaskthehearerto
turnontheheater,orleavetheplace,ortoputonmoreclothes,orto
apologizeforthepoorconditionoftheroom,dependingonthesituationof
context;(3)makessenseonlyiithehearerhastheknowledgethatChristmas
fallsinsummerinthesouthernhemisphere.
3.Howaresentencemeaningandutterancemeaningrelated,andhowdo
theydiffer?
答:Asentenceisagrammaticalconcept,andthemeaningofasentenceis
oftenstudiedastheabstract,intrinsicpropertyofthesentenceitselfin
termsofpredication.Butifwethinkofasentenceaswhatpeopleactually
utterinthecourseofcommunication,itbecomesanutterance,anditshould
beconsideredinthesituationinwhichitisactuallyuttered(orused).Soitis
impossibletotellif“Thedogisbarking”isasentenceoranutterance.Itcan
beeither.Italldependsonhowwelookatitandhowwearegoingto
analyzeit.Ifwetakeitasagrammaticalunitandconsideritasa
self-containedunitinisolationfromcontext,thenwearetreatingitasa
sentence.Ifwetakeitassomethingaspeakeruttersinacertainsituation
withacertainpurpose,thenwearetreatingitasanutterance.
Therefore,whilethemeaningofasentenceisabstract,anddecontextualized,
thatofanutteranceisconcrete,andcontext-dependent.Themeaningofan
utteranceisbasedonsentencemeaning;itistherealizationoftheabstract
meaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyina
context.Now,takethesentence“Mybagisheavy“asanexample.Semantic
analysisofthemeaningofthesentenceresultsintheone-placepredication
BAG(BEINGHEAVY).Thenapragmaticanalysisoftheutterancemeaning
ofthe.sentencevarieswiththecontextinwhichitisuttered.Forexample,it
couldbeutteredbyaspeakerasastraightforwardstatement,tellingthe
hearerthathisbagisheavy.Itcouldalsobeintendedbythespeakerasan
indirect,politerequest,askingthehearertohelphimcarrythebag.Another
possibilityisthatthespeakerisdecliningsomeone'srequestforhelp.All
thesearepossibleinterpretationsofthesameutterance“Mybagisheavy”.
Howitistobeunderstooddependsonthecontextinwhichitisutteredand
thepurposeforwhichthespeakeruttersit.
Whilemostutterancestaketheformofgrammaticallycomplete
sentences,someutterancesdonot,andsomecannotevenberestoredto
completesentences.
4.Trytothinkofcontextsinwhichthefollowingsentencescanbeusedfor
otherpurposesthanjuststatingfacts:
a)Theroomismessy.
b)Oh,itisraining!
c)Themusicofthemovieisgood.
d)Youhavebeenkeepingmynotesforawholeweeknow.
答:a)Afatherenteredhisson'sroomandfounditisverymessy.Thenwhen
hesaid,“Theroomismessy,“hewasblaminghissonfornottidyingitup.
b)Asonaskedhisfathertoplaywithhimoutside.Sowhenthefather
said,“Oh,it'sraining",hemeanttheycouldn'tplayoutside.
c)Twopersonsjustwatchedamovieandhadadiscussionofit.One
personsaid,“Thestoryofthemovieisverymoving”,sowhentheother
personsaid,“Themusicofthemovieisgood",hemeanthedidn'tthinkthe
storyofthemoviewasgood.
d)Apersonwantedhisnotesback,sowhenhesaid,“youhavebeen
keepingmynotesforawholeweeknow",hewasdemandingthereturnof
hisnotes.
5.AccordingtoAustin,whatarethethreeactsapersonispossibly
performingwhilemakinganutterance.Giveanexample.
答:AccordingtoAustin'snewmodel,aspeakermightbeperforming
threeactssimultaneouslywhenspeaking:locutionaryact,illocutionaryact,
andperlocutionaryact.
Alocutionaryactistheactofutteringwords,phrases,clauses.Itistheactof
conveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexiconandphonology.An
illocutionaryactistheactofexpressingthespeaker'sintention;itistheact
performedinsayingsomething.Aperlocutionaryactistheactperformedby
orresultingfromsayingsomething;itistheconsequenceof,orthechange
broughtaboutbytheutterance;itistheactperformedbysayingsomething.
Let'slookatanexample:
Youhaveleftthedoorwideopen.
Thelocutionaryactperformedbythespeakerishisutteranceofthe
words“you”,“have","door",“open”,etc.thusexpressingwhatthewords
literallymean.
Theillocutionaryactperformedbythespeakeristhatbymakingsuchan
utterancehehasexpressedhisintentionofspeaking,i.e.askingsomeoneto
closethedoor,ormakingacomplaint,dependingonthecontext.
Theperlocutionaryactreferstotheeffectoftheutterance.Ifthe
hearergetsthespeaker'smessageandseesthatthespeakermeanstotell
himtoclosethedoor,thespeakerhassuccessfullybroughtaboutthechange
intherealworldhehasintendedto;thentheperlocutionaryactis
successfullyperformed.
6.WhatarethefivetypesofillocutionaryspeechactsSearlehasspecified?
Whatistheillocutionarypointofeachtype?
答:(1)representatives:statingordescribing,sayingwhatthespeaker
believestobetrue
(2)directives:tryingtogetthehearertodosomething
(3)commissives:committingthespeakerhimselftosomefuturecourseof
action
(4)expressives:expressingfeelingsorattitudetowardsanexisting
(5)declarations:bringingaboutimmediatechangesbysaying
something
Theillocutionarypointoftherepresentativesistocommitthe
speakertosomething'sbeingthecase,tothetruthofwhathasbeensaid,in
otherwords,whenperforminganillocutionaryactofrepresentative,the
speakerismakingastatementorgivingadescriptionwhichhehimself
believestobetrue.Stating,believing,sweating,hypothesizingareamongthe
mosttypicaloftherepresentatives.
Directivesateattemptsbythespeakertogetthehearertodosome
thing.Inviting,suggesting,requesting,advising,wanting,threateningand
orderingareallspecificinstancesofthisclass.
Commissivesarethoseillocutionaryactswhosepointistocommit
thespeakertosomefuturecourseofaction,i.e.whenspeakingthespeaker
putshimselfunderacertainobligation.Promising,undertaking,vowingare
themosttypicalones.
Theillocutionarypointofexpressivesistoexpressthepsychological
statespecifiedintheutterance.Thespeakerisexpressinghisfeelingsor
attitudestowardsanexistingstateofaffairs,e.g.apologizing,thanking,
congratulating.
Thelastclass"declarations”hasthecharacteristicthatthe
successfulperformanceofanactofthistypebringsaboutthe
correspondencebetweenwhatissaidandreality.
7.Whatisindirectlanguageuse?Howisitexplainedinthelightofspeech
acttheory?
答:WhensomeoneisnotsayingIanexplicitandstraightforwardmanner
whathemeanstosay,ratherheistryingtoputacrosshismessageinan
implicit,roundaboutway,wecansayheisusingindirectlanguage.
Explanation(略)(见教材p.84-85)
8.WhatarethefourmaximsoftheCP?Trytogiveyourownexamplesto
showhowfloutingthesemaximsgivesrisetoconversationalimplicature?
答:CooperativePrinciple,abbreviatedasCP.Itgoesasfollows:
Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasrequiredatthestage
atwhichitoccursbytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchange
inwhichyouareengaged.
Tobemorespecific,therearefourmaximsunderthisgeneral
principle:
(1)Themaximofquantity
①Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired(forthe
currentpurposeoftheexchange).
②Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.
(2)Themaximofquality
①Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.
②Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.
(3)Themaximofrelation
Berelevant.
(4)Themaximofmanner
①Avoidobscurityofexpression.
②Avoidambiguity.
(3)Bebrief(avoidunnecessaryprolixity).
④Beorderly.
9.Whatispragmaticfailure?Trytofindinstancesofpragmaticfailurein
theEnglishusedbyChineselearnersofEnglish.
答:Thetechnicaltermforbreakdownsinthecourseofcommunicationis
pragmaticfailure.Pragmaticfailureoccurswhenthespeakerfailstouse
languageeffectivelytoachieveaspecificcommunicationpurpose,orwhen
thehearerfailstorecognizetheintentionortheillocutionar
温馨提示
- 1. 本站所有资源如无特殊说明,都需要本地电脑安装OFFICE2007和PDF阅读器。图纸软件为CAD,CAXA,PROE,UG,SolidWorks等.压缩文件请下载最新的WinRAR软件解压。
- 2. 本站的文档不包含任何第三方提供的附件图纸等,如果需要附件,请联系上传者。文件的所有权益归上传用户所有。
- 3. 本站RAR压缩包中若带图纸,网页内容里面会有图纸预览,若没有图纸预览就没有图纸。
- 4. 未经权益所有人同意不得将文件中的内容挪作商业或盈利用途。
- 5. 人人文库网仅提供信息存储空间,仅对用户上传内容的表现方式做保护处理,对用户上传分享的文档内容本身不做任何修改或编辑,并不能对任何下载内容负责。
- 6. 下载文件中如有侵权或不适当内容,请与我们联系,我们立即纠正。
- 7. 本站不保证下载资源的准确性、安全性和完整性, 同时也不承担用户因使用这些下载资源对自己和他人造成任何形式的伤害或损失。
最新文档
- 湖北省部分市州2022-2023学年高二下学期7月期末联合调研考试物理试题含解析
- 北师大四年级数学上册各单元知识点
- 下年度的工作计划
- 上学期大二班德育工作计划
- 2024年激光扫瞄显微镜项目建议书
- DB45-T 2735-2023 沃柑贮藏保鲜剂使用规范
- 2024年浙江湖州丽水衢州二模高考英语卷试题(含答案)
- 舌尖上的健康食品营养与安全智慧树知到期末考试答案章节答案2024年青岛工学院
- 社会医学智慧树知到期末考试答案章节答案2024年滨州医学院
- 审计学智慧树知到期末考试答案章节答案2024年安徽财经大学
- 2023年EANS颅底分会共识声明:海绵窦脑膜瘤的处理
- 2024届高考英语复习 完形填空技巧 课件(基于主题语境)
- 河道预制栏杆安装施工方案
- 2022北京市朝阳区区管企业年轻人才“培优”招聘100人上岸笔试历年难、易错点考题附带参考答案与详解-1
- 桥台锥坡维修施工方案
- 生物安全法课件
- “微课在小学语文教学中的有效运用”的调查问卷分析
- 水利水电工程论文3000字
- 谭晶华《日语综合教程(第七册)》学习指南【课文重点+词汇剖析+语法精解+全文翻译+练习答案】
- 融合心理健康教育的教学设计(八年级数学下册苏科版教案)
- 观看天使折翼警示教育片心得体会三篇
评论
0/150
提交评论