法语对英语的影响

citécity城市ducduke大公baronbaron男爵jugejudge法官arméearmy军队ennemienemy敌人gardeguard门卫prisonprison监狱libertéeliberty自由limonlemon柠檬beufbeef牛肉saumonsalmon鲑鱼（三文鱼）herbeherb草药法语对英语的影响[Abstract]BothFrenchandEnglishbelongtotheIndo-EuropeanFamily.SincetheMiddleEnglishperiodFrenchhashadstronginfluenceonEnglish.TheinfluenceoftheFrenchlanguageupontheEnglishlanguagecanbedividedintotwomainstages.Thefirstoneisfrom1066to1500.ThedecisivefactorduringthistimeistheNormanConquest.AlargenumberofFrenchwordspouredintoEnglishasapartofEnglishetymology,extendinginfluencetogrammar,spelling,pronunciationandword-formation.ThesecondstageisfromEuropeanRenaissancetothepresentglobalization.Withtheincreasingcommunicationamongeconomy,cultureandtechnology,manyforeignborrowingshavebeenimportedfromdifferentcountries.FrenchasaborrowingcontinuesitscontributiontotheEnglishvocabulary.Byanalyzingthefusionofthetwolanguages,thispapertriestopresentthevocabularyevolutionanditsculturalconnotation.

[KeyWords]French;English;vocabulary;influence;NormanConquest;naturalization

【摘要】法语和英语同属于印欧语系,中古英语以来法语对英语就有着极其深刻的影响。法语对英语的影响主要分为两个阶段：第一阶段从1066年到1500年,在这一阶段诺曼征服是其决定性的因素。大量的法语词汇进入英语，构成了英语词源的一部分。其影响涉及语法、拼写、语音以及构词等方面。第二阶段是从欧洲的文艺复兴到现在加速世界一体化的信息时代。各国之间的文化相互渗透，经济、文化、科技密切联系。许多国家的词汇进入英语，法语作为外来语继续丰富着英语的词汇。本文通过分析两种语言的融合来探讨词汇的发展演变过程及其所反映的历史文化色彩。

【关键词】法语；英语；词汇；影响；诺曼征服；归化1.Introduction

Thedevelopmentofacertainlanguagehasalonghistory.It’sinevitablethatdifferentlanguagesinfluenceandpenetrateeachotherintheirformationanddevelopment.Inaddition,aparticularlanguageassimilatestherefinedportionofotherlanguagestoenrichitself.Englishisthetypicalrepresentativeofthiskindoflanguage.Asacosmopolitanlanguage,Englishhasbeengreatlyinfluencedbyvariouslanguages,especiallybyFrench.SincetheMiddleEnglishperiodFrenchhadastronginfluenceonEnglish.TheinfluenceoftheFrenchlanguageupontheEnglishlanguagecanbedividedintotwomainstages.ThefirststageisfromNormanConquestto1500.OneofthemostinfluentialfactorsistheNormanConquest.AtthisstagetheFrenchwasusedbytheupperclassatfirst,andthenthetwolanguagesfusedtogetherandatlasttheFrenchwasacknowledgedbycommonpeople.Thesecondstageisfrom1500tothepresenttime.Onthewholethemostdirectandobservableimpactmanifestsitselfonthewordborrowing.Thescaleofvocabularyiswide.totheEnglishthrone,hehadneverthelessbeenlivinginexpectationofbecomingEdward’ssuccessor.Hehopedtoobtainthecrownbyforce.OnSeptember1066,WilliamlandedatPevensey,onthesouthcoastofEngland,withaformidableforce.HaroldwaskilledduringthebattleandtheEnglishweresooninfullretreat.OnChristmasDay1066,WilliamwascrownedkingofEngland.4.1.3TheNormanSettlement

William’spossessionofthethronehadbeenamatterofconquestandwasattendedbyalltheconsequencesoftheconquestofonepeoplebyanother.Oneofthemostimportantoftheseconsequenceswastheintroductionofanewnobility.ForseveralgenerationsaftertheConquesttheimportantpositionsandthegreatestateswerealmostalwaysheldbyNormansormenofforeignblood.Similarly,Normanprelatesweregraduallyintroducedintoallimportantpositionsinthechurch.ItislesseasytospeakwithcertaintyoftheNormansinthelowerwalksoflifewhocameintoEnglandwithWilliam’sarmy.Manyofthemdoubtlessremainedintheisland,andtheirnumberwasincreasedbyconstantaccretionsthroughouttherestoftheeleventhcenturyandthewholeofthenext.LikewisemerchantsandcraftsmenfromthecontinentseemtohavesettledinEnglandinconsiderablenumbers.ItisquiteimpossibletosayhowmanyNormansandFrenchpeoplesettledinEngland,butbecausethegoverningclassinbothchurchandstatewasalmostexclusivelymadeupfromamongthem,theirinfluencewasoutofallproportiontotheirnumber.4.2TheinfluenceofFrenchuponEnglishintheMiddleEnglishperiod

4.2.1TheuseofFrenchbytheupperclass

WhatevertheactualnumberofNormanssettledinEngland,itisclearthatthemembersofthenewrulingclassweresufficientlypredominanttocontinuetousetheirownlanguage.Thiswasnaturalenoughatfirst,astheyknewnoEnglish;buttheycontinuedtodosoforalongtimetocome,pickingupsomeknowledgeofEnglishgraduallybutmakingnoefforttodosoasamatterofpolicy.For200yearsaftertheNormanConquest,FrenchremainedthelanguageofordinaryintercourseamongtheupperclassesinEngland.ThenobilitychosetomaintainFrenchasthelanguageofsociety,administrationandcommerce.AtfirstthosewhospokeFrenchwerethoseofNormanorigin,butsoonthroughintermarriageandassociationwiththerulingclassnumerouspeopleofEnglishextractionmusthavefoundittotheiradvantagetolearnthenewlanguage,andbeforelongthedistinctionbetweenthosewhospokeFrenchandthosewhospokeEnglishwasnotethnicbutlargelysocial.ThemostimportantfactorinthecontinueduseofFrenchbytheEnglishupperclassuntilthebeginningofthethirteenthcenturywasthecloseconnectionthatexistedthroughalltheseyearsbetweenEnglandandthecontinent.ThesubjugatedEnglishwerenotkilledoff,norweretheydrivenfromtheircountry.Theywererelegatedtothestatusofaninferiorpeople,goodswineherdsandservants.Therefore，Englandbecameabilingualcountry.

TheNormansbelongedtoaraceofScandinavianorigin,butduringtheresidenceinNormandytheyhadgivenuptheirnativelanguageandhadadoptedtheFrenchdialectofthatregion.TheNormansintroducedintoEnglandavarietyoftheFrenchlanguagewecallNorman-French,theothervarietyisParisianFrench.BytheendofthethirteenthcenturyParisianFrenchbegantoenterEngland,andmorestillinthefifteenthcentury.AlargenumberofFrenchwordsmadetheirappearanceintheworksofChaucerandotherEnglishwriters,especiallyinmanyEnglishtranslationsofFrenchliteraryworkspublishedatthattime.4.2.2Fusionofthetwopeoplesandtwolanguages

IntheyearsfollowingtheNormanConquestthestingofdefeatandthehardshipsincidenttosogreatapoliticalandsocialdisturbanceweregraduallyforgotten.Peopleacceptedtheneworderassomethingaccomplished;theyaccepteditasafactandadjustedthemselvestoit.ThefusionofNormansandEnglishwasrapid.AndtheearlyfusionofFrenchandEnglishinEnglandisquiteclearfromavarietyofevidences.ItisevidentinthemarriageofNormanstoEnglishwomen.ItisevidentfromthewayinwhichtheEnglishgavetheirsupporttotheirrulersandNormanprelates.Itisevidentinmanyotherways.Everywheretherearesignsofconvergence.4.2.3KnowledgeofFrenchamongthemiddleclass

IfbytheendofthetwelfthcenturytheknowledgeofEnglishwasnotunusualamongmembersofthehighestclass,itseemsequallyclearthattheknowledgeofFrenchwasoftenfoundsomewhatfurtherdowninthesocialscale.InfacttheknowledgeofFrenchmaysometimeshaveextendedtothefreetenants.Sothetwolanguagesfusedtogetherandinfluencedeachother.4.2.4Frenchinfluenceonthevocabulary

TheinfluenceoftheFrenchlanguageupontheEnglishlanguageisdirectandevident.Itismuchmoreobservablefromthevocabulary.WherethetwolanguagesexistsidebysideforalongtimeandtherelationsbetweenthepeoplespeakingthemareasintimateastheywereinEngland,aconsiderabletransferenceofwordsfromonelanguagetotheotherisinevitable.ThenumberofFrenchwordsthatpouredintoEnglishwasunbelievablygreat.Thereisnothingcomparabletoitinthepreviousorsubsequenthistoryofthelanguage.IntheinfluxofFrenchwordstwostagescanbeobserved,anearlierandalater,withtheyear1250astheapproximatedividingline.WhenwestudytheFrenchwordsappearinginEnglishbefore1250,roughly900innumber,wefindthatmanyofthemweresuchasthelowerclasseswouldbecomefamiliarwiththroughcontactwithaFrench-speakingnobility,e.g.baron,noble,dame,servant,messenger,feast,minstrel,juggler,largess,story,rime,lay,etc.

Intheperiodafter1250theconditionsunderwhichFrenchwordshadbeenmakingtheirwayintoEnglishweresupplementedbyanewandpowerfulfactor－thosewhohadbeenaccustomedtospeakFrenchwereturninginincreasinglytotheuseofEnglish.InchangingfromFrenchtoEnglishtheytransferredmuchoftheirgovernmentalandadministrativevocabulary,theirecclesiastical,legal,andmilitaryterms,theirfamiliarwordsoffashion,food,andsociallife,thevocabularyofart,learning,andmedicine.IngeneralwemaysaythatintheearlierMiddleEnglishperiodtheFrenchwordsintroducedintoEnglishweresuchaspeoplespeakingonelanguageoftenlearnfromthosespeakingorlearningtospeakEnglish,theywerealsosuchwordsaspeoplewhohadbeenaccustomedtospeakFrenchwouldcarryoverwiththemintothelanguageoftheiradoption.OnlyinthiswaycanweunderstandthenatureandextentoftheFrenchimportationsinthisperiod.

Wecanfindwordsrelatingtoeveryaspectofhumansociety:

(1)Governmentalandadministrativewords

WeshouldexpectthatEnglishwouldowemanyofitswordsdealingwithgovernmentandadministrationtothelanguageofthosewhoformorethan200yearsmadepublicaffairstheirchiefconcern.Thewordsgovernment,administermightappropriatelyintroducealistofsuchwords.Itwouldincludesuchfundamentaltermsascrown,state,empire,realm,reign,royal,prerogative,authority,sovereign,majesty,scepter,tyrant,usurp,oppress,court,council,parliament,assembly,statute,treaty,alliance,record,record,repeal,adjourn,tax,subsidy,revenue,tally,exchequer.Intimatelyassociatedwiththeideaofgovernmentarealsowordslikesubject,allegiance,rebel,traitor,treason,exile,public,liberty.ThewordofficeandthetitlesofmanyofficesarelikewiseFrench:chancellor,treasurer,chamberlain,marshal,governor,councilor,minister,viscount,warden,castellan,mayor,constable,coroner,andeventhehumblecrier.Exceptforthewordskingandqueen,lord,lady,andearl,mostdesignationsofrankareFrench:noble,nobility,peer,prince,princess,duke,duchess,count,countess,marquis,baron,squire,page,aswellassuchwordsascourtier,retinue,sir,madam,mistress.Thelistmightwellbeextendedtoincludewordsrelatingtotheeconomicorganizationofsociety-manor,demesne,bailiff,vassal,homage,peasant,bondman,slave,servant,andcaitiff-sincetheyoftenhaveapoliticaloradministrativeaspect.

(2)Ecclesiasticalwords

ThechurchwasscarcelysecondtothegovernmentasanobjectofNormaninterestandambition.Thehigherclergy,occupyingpositionsofwealthandpower,were,aswehaveseen,practicallyallNormans.Ecclesiasticalprefermentopenedthewaytoacareerthatoftenledtothehighestpoliticalofficesatcourt.InmonasteriesandreligioushousesFrenchwasforalongtimetheusuallanguage.AccordinglywefindinEnglishsuchFrenchwordsasreligion,theology,sermon,homily,sacrament,baptism,communion,confession,penance,prayer,orison,lesson,passion,psalmody;suchindicationsofrankorclassasclergy,clerk,prelate,cardinal,legate,dean,chaplain,parson,pastor,vicar,sexton,abbess,novice,friar,hermit;thenamesofobjectsassociatedwiththeserviceorwiththereligiouslife,suchascrucifix,crosier,miter,surplice,censer,incense,lectern,image,chancel,chantry,chapter,abbey,convent,priory,hermitage,cloister,sanctuary;wordsexpressingsuchfundamentalreligiousortheologicalconceptsascreator,savior,trinity,virgin,saint,miracle,mystery,faith,heresy,schism,reverence,devotion,sacrilege,simony,temptation,damnation,penitence,contrition,remission,absolution,redemption,salvation,immortality;andthemoregeneralvirtuesofpiety,sanctity,charity,mercy,pity,obedience,aswellasthewordvirtueitself.Weshouldincludealsoanumberofadjectives,likesolemn,divine,reverend,devout,andverbs,suchaspreach,pray,chant,repent,confess,adore,sacrifice,convert,anoint,ordain.

(3)Law

FrenchwassolongthelanguageofthelawcourtsinEnglandthatthegreaterpartoftheEnglishlegalvocabularycomesfromthelanguageoftheconquerors.Thefactthatwespeakofjusticeandequityinsteadofgerihte,judgmentratherthandom,crimeinplaceofsynn,gylt,undæd,etc.,showshowcompletelywehaveadoptedtheterminologyofFrenchlaw.EvenwheretheOldEnglishwordsurvivesithaslostitstechnicalsense.Inthesamewaywesaybar,assize,eyre,plea,suit,plaintiff,defendant,judge,advocate,attorney,bill,petition,complaint,inquest,summons,hueandcry,indictment,jury,juror,panel,felon,evidence,proof,bail,ransom,mainpernor,judgment,verdict,sentence,decree,award,fine,forfeitprocesses:sue,plead,implead,accuse,indict,arraign,depose,blame,arrest,seize,pledge,warrant,assail,assign,judge,condemn,convict,award,amerce,distrain,imprison,banish,acquit,pardon.ThenamesofmanycrimesandmisdemeanorsareFrench:felony,trespass,assault,arson,larceny,fraud,libel,slander,perjury,adultery,andmanyothers.Suitsinvolvingpropertybroughtintousesuchwordsasproperty,estate,tenement,chattels,appurtenances,encumbrance,bounds,seisin,tenant,dower,legacy,

patrimony,heritage,heir,executor,entail.Commonadjectiveslikejust,innocent,culpablehaveobviouslegalimportthoughtheyarealsoofwiderapplication.,punishment,prison,gaol,pillory.Wehavelikewisearicharrayofverbsassociatedwithlegal

(4)Armyandnavy

ThelargepartthatwarplayedinEnglishaffairsintheMiddleAges,thefactthatthecontrolofthearmyandnavywasinthehandsofthosewhospokeFrench,andthecircumstancethatmuchofEnglishfightingwasdoneinFranceallresultedintheintroductionintoEnglishofanumberofFrenchmilitaryterms.TheartofwarhasundergonesuchchangessincethedaysofHastingsandLewesandAgincourtthatmanywordsoncecommonarenowobsoleteoronlyinhistoricaluse.Theirplaceshavebeentakenbylaterborrowings,oftenlikewisefromFrench,manyofthembeingwordsacquiredbytheFrenchinthecourseoftheirwarsinItalyduringthesixteenthcentury.NeverthelesswestillusemedievalFrenchwordswhenwespeakofthearmyandthenavy,ofpeace,enemy,arms,battle,combat,skirmish,siege,defense,ambush,stratagem,retreat,soldier,garrison,guard,spy,andwehavekeptthenamesofofficerssuchascaptain,lieutenant,sergeant.Werecognizeasoncehavinghadgreatersignificancewordslikedart,lance,banner,mail,buckler,hauberk,archer,chieftain,portcullis,barbican,andmoat.Sometimeswehaveretainedawordwhileforgettingitsoriginalmilitarysignificance.Theword“Havoc!”wasoriginallyanordergivinganarmythesignaltocommenceplunderingandseizingspoil.Verbsliketoarm,array,harness,brandish,vanquish,besiege,defend,amongmany,sufficetoremindusofthisimportantFrenchelementinourvocabulary.

(5)Fashion,mealsandsociallife

ThattheupperclassesshouldhavesetthestandardinfashionanddressissoobviousanassumptionthatthenumberofFrenchwordsbelongingtothisclassoccasionsnosurprise.ThewordsfashionanddressarethemselvesFrench,asareapparel,habit,gown,robe,garment,attire,cape,cloak,coat,frock,collar,veil,train,chemise,petticoat.Sotooarelace,embroidery,pleat,gusset,buckle,button,tassel,plume,andthenamesofsucharticlesaskerchief,mitten,garter,galoshes,andboots,Verbslikeembellish,andadornoftenoccurincontextswhichsuggestthewordluxury,andthisinturncarrieswithitsatin,taffeta,fur,sable,beaver,ermine.Thecolorsblue,brown,vermilion,scarlet,saffron,russet,andtawnyareFrenchborrowingsofthisperiod.Jewel,ornament,brooch,chaplet,ivory,andenamelpointtotheluxuriesofthewealthy,anditissignificantthatthenamesofallthemorefamiliarpreciousstonesareFrench:turquoise,amethyst,topaz,garnet,ruby,emerald,sapphire,pearl,diamond,nottomentioncrystal,coral,andberyl.

TheFrench-speakingclasses,itwouldseem,mustalsobecreditedwithaconsiderableadornmentoftheEnglishtable.NotonlyarethewordsdinnerandsupperFrench,butalsothewordsfeast,repast,collation,andmess(nowmilitary).So,too,areappetite,taste,victuals,viand,andsustenance.Onecouldhavefoundonthemedievalmenu,hadtherebeenone,amongthefish,mackerel,sole,perch,bream,sturgeon,salmon,sardine,oyster,porpoise;amongmeatsvenison,beef,veal,mutton,pork,bacon,sausage,tripe,withachoiceofloin,chine,haunch,orbrawn,andwithgravyincluded;amongfowl,poultry,pullet,pigeon,andvariousgamebirdsmentionedbelow.Onecouldhavepottage,gruel,toast,biscuit,cream,sugar,olives,salad,lettuce,endive,andfordessertalmonds,andmanyfruits,includingraisin,fig,date,grape,orange,lemon,pomegranate,cherry,peach,oraconfection,pasty,tart,jelly,treacle.Amongseasoningandcondimentswefindspice,clove,thyme,herb,mustard,vinegar,marjoram,cinnamon,nutmeg.Theverbsroast,boil,parboil,stew,fry,broach,blanch,grate,andmincedescribevariousculinaryprocesses,andgoblet,saucer,cruet,plate,plattersuggestFrenchrefinementsintheservingofmeals.ItismelancholytothinkwhattheEnglishdinnertablewouldhavebeenlikehadtherebeennoNormanConquest.AvarietyofnewwordssuggesttheinnovationsmadebytheFrenchindomesticeconomyandsociallife.Arras,curtain,couch,chair,cushion,screen,lamp,lantern,sconce,chandelier,blanket,quilt,coverlet,counterpane,towel,andbasinindicatearticlesofcomfortorconvenience,whiledais,parlor,wardrobe,closet,pantry,scullery,andgarnerimplyimprovementsindomesticarrangements.Recreation,solace,jollity,leisure,dance,carol,revel,minstrel,juggler,fool,ribald,lute,tabor,melody,music,chess,checkers,dalliance,andconversationrevealvarioustypesofhorse,togetherwithambler,courser,hackney,palfrey,rouncy,stallionrein,curb,crupper,rowel,curry,trot,stable,harness,mastiff,terrier,spaniel,leash,kennel,scent,retrieve,falcon,merlin,tercelet,mallard,partridge,pheasant,quail,plover,heron,squirrel,forest,park,covert,warren.Onemightextendthelisttoincludeotheractivities,withtermslikejoust,tournament,pavilion,butthosegivenaresufficienttoshowhowmuchtheEnglishvocabularyowestoFrenchinmattersofdomesticandsociallife.

(6)Art,learningandmedicine

Theculturalandintellectualinterestsoftherulingclassarereflectedinwordspertainingtothearts,architecture,literature,learning,andscience,especiallymedicine.Suchwordsasart,painting,sculpture,music,beauty,color,figure,image,tonearetypicalofthefirstclass,whilearchitectureandbuildinghavegivenuscathedral,palace,mansion,chamber,ceiling,joist,cellar,garret,chimney,lintel,latch,lattice,wicket,tower,pinnacle,turret,porch,bay,choir,cloister,baptistry,column,pillar,base,andmanysimilarwords.Literatureisrepresentedbythrworditselfandbypoet,rime,prose,romance,lay,story,chronicle,tragedy,prologue,preface,title,volume,chapter,quire,parchment,vellum,paper,andpen,andlearningbytreatise,compilation,study,logic,geometry,grammar,noun,clause,gender,togetherwithverbslikecopy,expound,andcompile.Amongthesciences,medicinehasbroughtinthelargestnumberofearlyFrenchwordsstillincommonuse,amongthemthewordmedicineitself,chirurgy,physician,surgeon,apothecary,malady,debility,distemper,pain,ague,palsy,pleurisy,gout,jaundice,leper,paralytic,plague,pestilence,contagion,anatomy,stomach,pulse,remedy,ointment,balm,pellet,alum,arsenic,niter,sulphur,alkali,poison.Itisclearthattheartsandsciences,beinglargelycultivatedorpatronizedbythehigherclasses,oweanimportantpartoftheirvocabularytoFrench.

SuchclassesofwordsashavebeenillustratedintheforegoingparagraphsindicateimportantdepartmentsinwhichtheFrenchlanguagealteredtheEnglishvocabularyintheMiddleAges.ButtheydonotsufficientlyindicatehowverygeneralwastheadoptionofFrenchwordsineveryprovinceoflifeandthought.Onehasonlytoglanceoveramiscellaneouslistofwords-nouns,adjectives,verbs-torealizehowuniversalwastheFrenchcontribution.Inthenounswemayconsidertherangeofideasinthefollowinglist,madeupofwordswhichwerealreadyinEnglishby1300:action,adventure,affection,age,air,bucket,bushel,calendar,carpenter,cheer,city,coast,comfort,cost,country,courage,courtesy,coward,crocodile,cruelty,damage,debt,deceit,dozen,ease,envy,error,face,faggot,fame,fault,flower,folly,force,gibbet,glutton,grain,grief,gum,harlot,honor,hour,jest,joy,labor,leopard,malice,manner,marriage,mason,metal,mischief,mountain,noise,number,ocean,odor,opinion,order,pair,people,peril,person,pewter,piece,point,poverty,powder,power,quality,quart,rage,rancor,reason,river,scandal,seal,season,sign,sound,sphere,spirit,square,strife,stubble,substance,sum,tailor,task,tavern,tempest,unity,use,vision,waste.Thesameuniversalityisshownintheadjective.HeretheadditionswereofspecialimportancesinceOldEnglishwasnotverywellprovidedwithadjectivedistinctions.FromnearlyathousandFrenchadjectivesinMiddleEnglishwemayconsiderthefollowingselection,allthewordsinthislistbeinginuseinChaucer’stime:able,abundant,active,actual,amiable,amorous,barren,blank,brief,calm,certain,chase,chief,clear,common,contrary,courageous,courteous,covetous,coy,cruel,curious,debonair,double,eager,easy,faint,feeble,fierce,final,firm,foreign,frail,frank,gay,gentle,gracious,hardy,hasty,honest,horrible,innocent,jolly,large,liberal,luxurious,malicious,mean,moist,natural,nice,obedient,original,perfect,pertinent,plain,pliant,poor,precious,principal,probable,proper,pure,quaint,real,rude,safe,sage,savage,scarce,second,secret,simple,single,sober,solid,special,stable,stout,strange,sturdy,subtle,sudden,supple,sure,tender,treacherous,universal,usual.Alistoftheverbsborrowedatthesametimeshowsequaldiversity.Examplesare:advance,advise,aim,allow,apply,approach,arrange,arrive,betray,butt,carry,chafe,change,chase,close,comfort,commence,complain,conceal,consider,continue,count,cover,covet,cry,cull,deceive,declare,defeat,defer,defy,delay,desire,destroy,embrace,enclose,endure,enjoy,enter,err,excuse,flatter,flourish,force,forge,form,furnish,grant,increase,inform,inquire,join,languish,launch,marry,mount,move,murmur,muse,nourish,obey,oblige,observe,pass,pay,pierce,pinch,please,practise,praise,prefer,proceed,propose,prove,purify,pursue,push,quash,quit,receive,refuse,rejoice,relieve,remember,reply,rinse,rob,satisfy,save,scald,serve,spoil,strange,strive,stun,succeed,summon,suppose,surprise,tax,tempt,trace,travel,tremble,trip,wait,waive,waste,wince.Finally,theinfluenceofFrenchmaybeseeninnumerousphrasesandturnsofexpression,suchastotakeleave,todrawnear,toholdone’speace,tocometoahead,todojustice,ormakebelieve,handtohand,onthepointof,accordingto,subjectto,atlarge,byheart,invain,withoutfail.

Fromtheabovelistswecanseethatloan-wordsfromFrenchcameintoEnglishnotonlyinlargenumbersbutaswordscommonlyusedinModernEnglish.TheyareeverydaywordswhichconstituteanimportantpartoftheEnglishvocabulary.4.2.5Assimilation,Lossofnativewords,DifferentiationinmeaningofthetwolanguagesandNaturalizationofthelanguage

(i)Assimilation

TherapiditywithwhichthenewFrenchwordswereassimilatedisevidencedbythepromptnesswithwhichmanyofthembecamethebasisofderivatives.EnglishendingswereapparentlyaddedtothemwithasmuchfreedomastoEnglishwords.Forexample,theadjectivegentleisrecordedin1225andwithinfiveyearswehaveitcompoundedwithanEnglishnountomakegentlewoman(1230).Alittlelaterwefindgentleman(1275),gentleness(1300),andgently(1330).Thesecompoundsandderivativesalloccurwithinaboutacenturyofthetimewhentheoriginaladjectivewasadopted.Inthesamewaywehavefaith(1250)givingfaithlessandfaithful(bothby1300),faithfully(1362),andfaithfulness(1388),aswellastheobsoletefaithly(1325).Theadverbialending-lyseemstohavebeenaddedtoadjectivesalmostassoonastheyappearedinthelanguage.Someadverbsoccuralmostasearlyastheadjectivesfromwhichtheyarederived.ItisclearthatthenewFrenchwordswerequietlyassimilated,andenterintoaneasyandnaturalfusionwiththenativeelementinEnglish.(ii)Lossofnativewords

Theothercaseisthelossofnativewords.AftertheNormanConquest,duplicationsfrequentlyresulted,formanyoftheFrenchwordsthatcameintouseboremeaningsalreadyexpressedbyanativeword.Insuchcasesoneoftwothingshappened:ofthetwowordsonewaseventuallylost,or,wherebothsurvived,theyweredifferentiatedinmeaning.InsomecasestheFrenchworddisappeared,butinagreatmanycasesitwastheoldEnglishwordthatdiedout.Thesubstitutionwasnotalwaysimmediate;oftenbothwordscontinuedinuseforalongerorshorttime,andtheEnglishwordoccasionallysurvivesinthedialectstoday.ThustheOEēam,whichhasbeenreplacedinthestandardspeechbytheFrenchworduncle,isstillinuse(eme)inScotland.TheOEandacontesteditspositionwiththeFrenchenvyuntilthetimeofChaucer,buteventuallylostoutandwithitwenttheadjectiveandig(envious)andtheverbandian(toenvy).InthiswaymanycommonOldEnglishwordssuccumbed.TheOEæpeleyieldedtoF.noble,andæpelingbecamenobleman.DryhtenandfrēaweredisplacedbytheFrenchprince,althoughtheEnglishwordlord,whichsurvivedasasynonym,helpedintheelimination.Atthesametimeleodwasbeingoustedbypeople