领导学：在实践中提升领导力（原书第10版）教案-指导手册 第14章　情境

Chapter14-TheSituation

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Part4:FocusontheSituation

Followers

Leader

Situation

Chapter14:TheSituation

Part4Overview

Despitethecomplexityofleadersandfollowers,perhapsnofactorintheinteractionalframeworkisascomplexasthesituation

Whatonepersonperceivestobethekeysituationalfactoraffectingtheirbehaviormayberelativelyunimportanttoanotherperson

Moreover,therelativeimportanceofthesituationalfactorsvariesovertime

Leadershipresearchershaveexaminedhowdifferenttask,organizational,andenvironmentalfactorsaffectbothleaders’andfollowers’behavior

Thoughmosthaveexaminedonlytheeffectsofoneortwosituationalvariablesonleaders’andfollowers’behavior

Manyofthesefactors,suchassocietalcultureortechnologicalchange,donoteasilylendthemselvestorealisticlaboratoryexperimentswhereconditionsarecontrolled

Nonetheless,itisvirtuallyimpossibletounderstandleadershipwithouttakingthesituationintoconsideration

InPart4,weexaminevariousfactorsandtheoriespertainingespeciallytothesituation

LearningObjectivesforChapter14

LO14-01:Definehowtasksvaryaswellastheirproblemsandchallenges.

LO14-02:Clarifytheformalandinformalorganizationandthetheoryoforganizationalculture.

LO14-03:Characterizethecurrentorganizationalenvironment.

LO14-04:Recounttheimplicationsforleadershippractitionersarisingfromthetask,theorganization,andtheenvironment.

Chapter14BriefOutline

Introduction

TheTask

HowTasksVary,andWhatThatMeansforLeadership

ProblemsandChallenges

TheOrganization

FromtheIndustrialAgetotheInformationAge

TheFormalOrganization

TheInformalOrganization:OrganizationalCulture

ATheoryofOrganizationalCulture

AnAfterthoughtonOrganizationalIssuesforStudentsandYoungLeaders

TheEnvironment

AreThingsChangingMoreThanTheyUsedTo?

LeadingacrossSocietalCultures

WhatIsSocietalCulture?

TheGLOBEStudy

Summary

Chapter14ExtendedOutline

Introduction

Itisdifficulttopredictanyone’sbehaviorunlessyoutakethesituationintoaccount

Also,wearecomingtounderstandthatthesituationisoneofthemostpowerfulvariablesintheleadershipequation–andthatisthetopicofthischapter

Itisimportanttounderstandthesituationinfluencesleadersandfollowers

Thesituationisnota“given”thatleadersandfollowersadaptto

Sometimesleadersandfollowerscanchangethesituation,enhancingthelikelihoodofdesiredoutcomes

Leaderscanusetheirknowledgeofhowthesituationaffectsleadershiptoproactivelychangethesituationtoenhancethechanceofsuccess

Often,leadersandfollowersoverlookhowchangingthesituationcanhelpthemtochangetheirbehavior–thisiscalledsituationalengineering

Highlight14.1describesoneoftwohorrificman-madedisasters–thespaceshuttleChallengeraccident

Theother–theexplosionofthenuclearpowerplantinChernobyl–ispresentedinthemini-caseattheendofthechapter

Highlight14.2reflectsonadifferentkindofsituationalfactor–thecoronavirus

Inabookdesignedtointroducestudentstothesubjectofleadership,achapterabout“thesituation”posessomechallengingobstaclesanddilemmas

Thebreadthofthetopicisdaunting–itcouldincludealmosteverything

Yet,thesituationoftenexplainsfarmoreaboutwhatisgoingonandwhatkindsofleadershipbehaviorswillbebestthananyothersinglevariable

Thechapterattemptstosortoutsomeofthecomplexityandmagnitudeofthistopic

First,wereviewsomeoftheresearchthathasledustoconsidertheseissues

Then,afterexaminingahugesituationalchangethatisnowoccurring

Wepresentamodeltohelpusconsiderkeysituationvariables

Finally,welookforwardthroughaninterestinglens

Throughoutthechapter,theobjectivewillbeprimarilytoincreaseawarenessratherthantoprescribespecificcoursesofleaderaction

Theappropriatenessofaleader’sbehavioroftenmakessensewhenconsideringthesituationalcontextinwhichthebehavioroccurs

Thesituationmaybetheprimaryreasonpersonalitytraits,experience,orcognitiveabilitiesarerelatedlessconsistentlytoleadershipeffectivenessthantoleadershipemergence

Becausethesituationsleadersfaceissovaried,itisnotsurprisingthatstudiesofleadercharacteristicsyieldinconsistentresults

Theimportanceofthesituationintheleadershipprocessshouldnotbeoverlooked

Historically,someleadershipresearchersemphasizedthesituationintheleadershipprocessinresponsetotheGreatMantheoryofleadership

Theseresearchersmaintainedthesituation,notsomeone’straits,playsthemostimportantroleindeterminingwhoemergesasaleader

Theynotedthatgreatleaderstypicallyemergedduringeconomiccrisis,socialupheavals,orrevolutions–generallynotassociatedwithperiodsofcalm

Moreover,researchersbelievedleadersweremade,notborn,andthatexperiencehelpedforgeeffectiveleaders

Morerecentleadershiptheoriesexploredhowsituationalfactorsaffectleaders’behaviors

Inroletheory,aleader’sbehaviorwassaidtodependonaleader’sperceptionsofseveralcriticalaspectsofthesituation

Rulesandregulationsgoverningthejob

Roleexpectationsofsubordinates,peers,andsuperiors

Thenatureofthetask

Feedbackaboutsubordinates’performance

Roletheoryclarifiedhowsituationaldemandscauseroleconflictandroleambiguity

Aleader’sabilitytoresolvesuchconflictsmaydetermineleadershipeffectiveness

Anotherefforttoincorporatesituationalvariablesintoleadershiptheorywasthemultiple-influencemodel

Thisdistinguishesbetweenmicrovariables–suchastaskcharacteristics–andmacrovariables–suchastheexternalenvironment–inthesituation

Itisbelievedmacrovariableshaveapervasiveinfluenceonleader’sactions

Bothroletheoryandthemultiple-influencemodelhighlightamajorprobleminaddressingsituationfactors–situationsvaryincountlessways

Becausesituationsvary,itishelpfulforleaderstohaveanabstractschemeforconceptualizingsituationstoidentifywhatisthemostsalientorcritical

Oneofthemostbasicabstractionsissituationallevels–thetasklevel,theorganizationallevel,andtheenvironmentallevel

Eachofthesethreelevelsprovidesadifferentperspectivewithwhichtoexaminetheleadershipprocess–seeFigure14.1

Thesethreelevelsdonotexhaustallthewayssituationsvary

Situationsdifferbyphysicalvariables,workloaddemands,andtheextenttowhichworkgroupsinteractwithothergroups

Organizationsalsohaveuniquecorporatecultureswhichdefineacontextforleadership

Therearealsobroadereconomic,social,legal,andtechnologicalaspects

Thequestionis:What,amidallofthissituationalcomplexity,shouldleaderspayattentionto?

TheTask

HowTasksVary,andWhatThatMeansforLeadership

Themostfundamentallevelofthesituationinvolvesthetaskstobeperformedbyindividualsorteamswithintheorganization

Taskautonomyisthedegreetowhichajobprovidesanindividualwithsomecontroloverwhattheydoandhowtheydoit

Autonomyoftencovarieswithtechnicalexpertise

Workerswithconsiderableexpertisewillbegivenmorelatitude

Thosewithfewskillswillbegivenmoreinstructionandcoaching

Responsibilityandjobsatisfactionoftenincreasewhenautonomyincreases

Anotherwaytasksvaryisintaskfeedback,whichreferstothedegreetowhichapersonaccomplishingataskreceivesinformationaboutperformancefromperformingthetaskitself

Feedbackisreceivedfromwhatisintrinsictotheworkactivityitself

Drivingacarisanexampleoffeedbackintrinsictoatask

Leaderssometimeshavetoredesigntaskssothatthetasksprovidemoreintrinsicfeedback

Followersmaybecomedissatisfiedifleadersprovidehighlevelsoffeedbackfortasksthatalreadyprovideintrinsicfeedback

Whenlookingattaskstructure,thereiseitherstructuredorunstructuredtasks

Structuredtaskshaveaknownprocedureforaccomplishingthetask,rulesgoverninghowapersongoesaboutatask,andiftherulesarefollowed,thereisoneresult

Anunstructuredtaskshasmanydifferentwaystogoaboutaccomplishingthetask,perhapsnoneareobviousornecessarilybestforapproachingasolution

Peoplevaryintheirpreferencesfor,orabilitytohandle,structuredversusunstructuredtasks

FromtheMyers-BriggsTypeIndicator,perceiverspreferunstructuredandjudgerspreferstructuredtasks

Thosewithahightoleranceforstressmayhandleunstructuredtasksbetter

Althoughitiseasierforleaderstogiveinstructioninstructuredtasks,itisnotnecessarilythemosthelpfulthingtodo

Subordinatesneedhelpwhenataskisunstructuredandreducingthedegreeofambiguityisaleadershipbehaviorthatfollowersusuallyappreciate

Finally,taskinterdependenceconcernsthedegreetowhichtasksrequirecoordinationandsynchronizationforworkgroupsorteamstoaccomplishdesiredgoals

Thisdiffersfromautonomyinthatteammembersmaybeabletoaccomplishtasksinanautonomousfashion,buttheireffortsmustbecoordinatedfortheteamtosucceed

Taskswithhighlevelsofinterdependenceplaceapremiumonleaders’organizingandplanning,directing,andcommunicationskills

Thedegreeoftaskinterdependencecandictatewhichleaderbehaviorswillbeeffectiveinaparticularsituation

ProblemsandChallenges

Here,westressadistinctionbetweentheconnotationoftaskasalreadydescribedandthatofcompletelynovelproblemsorchallengesforwhichroutinesolutionsdonotexist

Oftenwefaceproblemsorchallengesforwhichtheproblem-solvingresourcesalreadyexist,

Thoseresourceshavetwoaspects:specializedmethodsandspecializedexpertise

Therearemanytechnicalproblemswecansolvebyapplyingspecializedmethods

Wecannotfixarattleinthecarengine,butwebelieveamechaniccandoso

Wecannotfixourailment,butwebelievethephysicianwillknowwhattodo

Wemaynotknowhowtousenewsoftware,butwebelievewecanmasteritwithassistancefromanexpert

Problemslikethesearecalledtechnicalproblems

Eventhoughtheproblemsarecomplex,thereareexpertsolutions,andexpertsknowhowtosolvethemevenifwedonot

Someproblemscannotbesolvedusingcurrentlyexistingresourcesandwaysofthinkingandsometimesitcanbedifficultreachingacommondefinitionoftheproblem

Solvingsuchproblemsrequiresthesystemsfacingthemmakechangesofsomekind

Theseproblemsarecalledadaptiveproblems

Whereastechnicalproblemscanbesolvedwithoutchangingthenatureofthesocialsystemwithinwhichtheyoccur

Adaptiveproblemscanbesolvedonlybychangingthesystemitself

Mostsocialproblemsturnouttobeadaptiveinnature

Significantorganizationalchangeisanadaptivechallenge

Howdoyouknowwhenachallengeismostlyatechnicalchallengeormostlyanadaptivechallenge?

Itisanadaptivechallengeeitherwhollyormostly

Whenpeople’sheartsandmindsneedtochange,andnotjusttheirstandardorhabitualbehaviors

Byprocessofelimination

Ifeverytechnicalsolutionhasfailedtoimprovethesituation,itislikelyanadaptivechallenge

Ifthereiscontinuingconflictamongpeoplestrugglingwiththechallenge

Inacrisis,whichmayreflectanunderlyingorunrecognizedadaptiveproblem

Differentleadershipapproachesarerequiredtosolveadaptiveproblemsthanarerequiredtosolvetechnicalproblems

Thatisbecauseadaptiveproblemsinvolvepeople’svalues,andfindingsolutionsrequirestheactiveengagementoftheirheartsandminds–notjusttheleader’s

Thisiscalledadaptiveleadership

Tosummarize,Table14.1shows

Therelationshipbetweenwhetheraproblemorchallengeismostlytechnicaloradaptiveinnature

Thekindofworkrequiredtoeffectivelyaddressthechallenge

Andwhomshouldbethoughtofasthe“problemsolver”

Withtechnicalproblems,theworkisapplyingcurrentknow-how,andauthoritiesdothework

Withadaptiveproblems,theworkisdiscoveringnewways,andthepeoplefacingthechallengearetheonesdoingthework

TheOrganization

FromtheIndustrialAgetotheInformationAge

StartingjustbeforetheCivilWarandcontinuingthroughthelastquarterofthe20thcentury,theindustrialagesupplantedtheageofagriculture

Theindustrialagesawcompaniesbenefittingfrom“economiesofscaleandscope”

Nowanewageisemerging,theinformationage,inwhichthefundamentalassumptionsoftheindustrialagearebecomingobsolete

Anewsetofoperatingassumptionsunderlietheinformationageandhowcompaniesoperatewillchangeinseveralways

Crossfunctions

Industrialagefirmsgainedcompetitiveadvantagethroughspecializationoffunctionalskillsinmanufacturing,distribution,marketing,andtechnology

Yieldedbenefitsbutledtoinefficienciesandslowresponseprocesses

Theinformationageoperateswithintegratedbusinessprocessesthatcutacrosstraditionalbusinessfunctions

Linkstocustomersandsuppliers

Industrialagecompaniesusedarm’s-lengthtransactionswithcustomersandsuppliers

ITallowstoday’sfirmstointegratesupply,production,anddelivery,realizingenormousimprovementsincost,quality,andresponsetime

Customersegmentation

Industrialagefirmsofferedlow-cost,standardizedproductsandservices

Informationagefirmsmustlearntooffercustomizedproductsandservicestodiversecustomersegments

Globalscale

Informationagecompaniescompetewiththebestcompaniesintheworld

Innovation

Productlifecyclecontinuestoshrink

Companiesmustrefineanticipatingcustomers’futureneeds,innovatenewproducts/services,andusenewtechnologyforefficientdelivery

Knowledgeworkers

Industrialcompaniescreatedsharpdistinctionsbetweenthewhite-collarengineersandmanagersandthedirectlaborerwhoperformedphysicaltasks

Now,allemployeesmustcontributevaluebywhattheyknowandbytheinformationtheycanprovide

Youneedonlyreflectonthislistofchangingoperatingassumptionstorecognizethatthesituationleadersfindthemselvesintodayisdifferentfrom20yearsago

What’smore,itisprobablychangingatanever-increasingrate–seeHighlight14.3

Notehowprecariousitistomaintainbalanceasaleaderdealingwithdiverseobjectives,conflicts,andinterestgroups–andhoweasilythebalancecanbeupset

Tounderstandhoworganizationscopewithchange,itmaybehelpfultolookattwodifferentfacetsoforganizations

Theformalorganization

Andtheinformalorganization,ororganizationalculture

TheFormalOrganization

Manyaspectsoftheformalorganizationhaveaprofoundimpactonleadership

Levelofauthorityconcernsyourhierarchicallevelinanorganization

Thebehaviorsmostcriticaltoleadershipeffectivenesschangesasyoumoveup

First-linesupervisors,lower-levelleaders,andcoachesspendconsiderabletime

Trainingfollowers

Resolvingworkunitorteamperformanceproblems

Schedulingpracticesorarrangingworkschedules

Implementingpolicies

Leadersathigherlevelshavemoreautonomyandspendmoretime

Settingpolicies

Coordinatingactivities

Makingstaffingdecisions

SeeHighlight14.4foradifferentaspectofhowlevelofauthorityaffectsleadership

Organizationalstructurereferstothewayanorganization’sactivitiesarecoordinatedandcontrolled–itisanotherlevelofthesituationinwhichleadersandfollowersmustoperate

Aconceptualreality,notatangibleone–frequentlydepictedinanorganizationalchart

Structureisjustatoolforgettingthingsdone

Leadersmaywishtodesignastructuretoenhancethelikelihoodofattainingadesiredoutcome,ortheymaywishtochangeastructuretomeetfuturedemands

Oneimportantwaystructuresvaryisintermsoftheircomplexity

Horizontalcomplexityreferstothenumberof“boxes”atanylevelonanorganizationalchart

Greatercomplexityhereisassociatedwithmorespecializationandanincreasedlikelihoodofcommunicationbreakdowns

Verticalcomplexityreferstothenumberofhierarchicallevelsappearinginanorganizationalchart

Averticallysimplechartmayhaveonlytwoorthreelevels

Averticallycomplexchartmayhavetenormore

Thiscanaffectleadershipbyimpactingotherfactorssuchasauthoritydynamicsandcommunicationnetworks

Spatialcomplexitydescribesgeographicdispersion

Allworkersunderoneroofordispersedaroundthecountryortheworld

Biggerorganizationsaremorelikelytohave

Morespecializedsubunits(horizontalcomplexity)

Agreaternumberofhierarchicallevels(verticalcomplexity)

Andtohavesubunitsthataregeographicallydispersed(spatialcomplexity)

Organizationsalsovaryintheirdegreeofformalization,ordegreeofstandardization

Thosewithwrittenjobdescriptionsandstandardizedoperatingproceduresforeachpositionhaveahighdegreeofformalization

Thistendstovarywithsize,justascomplexityincreaseswithsize

Formalizationvarieswiththenatureofworkperformed

Manufacturingtendtohavefairlyformalizedstructures

R&Dfirmstendtobelessformalized

Thedegreeofformalizationposesbothadvantagesanddisadvantagesforleadersandfollowers

Leadersmaybeconstrainedbyuniondictatesorothervariables–seeHighlight14.5wheretheideaofsubstitutesforleadershipisintroduced

Centralizationreferstothediffusionofdecision-makingthroughoutanorganization

Ifonepersonmakesdecisions,thefirmishighlycentralized

Whendecision-makingisdispersedtothelowestlevelsintheorganization,theorganizationisverydecentralized–whoseadvantagesinclude

Increasedparticipationinthedecisionprocess

And,consequently,greateracceptanceandownershipofdecisionoutcomes

Therearealsoadvantagestocentralization

Uniformpoliciesandprocedureswhichcanincreasefeelingsofequity

Clearercoordinationprocedures

Thetaskofbalancingthedegreeofcentralizationisanongoingchallengeforleaders

TheInformalOrganization:OrganizationalCulture

Thewordthatsumsuptheinformalorganizationisculture

Organizationalcultureisthesystemofsharedbackgrounds,norms,values,orbeliefsamongmembersofagroup

Organizationalclimateconcernsmembers’subjectivereactionstotheorganization

Theorganizationalclimateispartlyafunctionof,orreactionto,organizationalculture

Organizationalclimateisrelatedtohowwellmembersgetalongwitheachother

Itisnarrowerinscopebuyhighlyrelatedtojobsatisfaction

Ithasmoretodowithnon-taskperceptionsofwork

Thereareagreatnumberofdifferentculturesacrossorganizations

Culturaldifferencesexistbetweenorganizationswithinthesameindustry

QuestionsthatsuggestwaysinwhichorganizationalculturesdifferislistedinTable14.2

Whatcanbetalkedaboutornottalkedabout?

Howdopeoplewieldpower?

Howdoesapersongetaheadorstayoutoftrouble?

Whataretheunwrittenrulesofthegame?

Whataretheorganization’smoralityandethics?

Whatstoriesaretoldabouttheorganization?

Itoftentakesanoutsidertorecognizeanorganizationalculture

Memberscanaskthemselvestheabovequestions

Anotherwaytounderstandanorganization’scultureisthroughits

Mythsandstoriesarethetalesabouttheorganizationpasseddownovertimewhichcommunicatesastoryoftheorganization’sunderlyingvalues

Symbolsandartifactsareobjectsthatcanbeseenandnoticedandthatdescribevariousaspectsoftheculture

Ritualsarerecurringeventsoractivitiesthatreflectimportantaspectsoftheunderlyingculture

Languageconcernsthejargon,oridiosyncraticterms,ofanorganizationandcanserveseveraldifferentpurposesrelevanttoculture

Thefactthatsomepeopleknowthelanguageandsomedonotindicateswhoisinthecultureandwhoisnot

Languagecanalsoprovideinformationabouthowpeoplewithinacultureviewothers

Languagecanbeusedtohelpcreateaculture

TheseareexplainedinmoredetailinHighlight14.6

Leadersmustrealizetheycanplayanactiveroleinchanginganorganization’sculture,notjustbeinfluencedbyit

Leaderscanchangeculturebyattendingtoorignoringparticularissues,problems,orprojects

Theycanmodifyculture

Throughtheirreactionstocrises

Byrewardingnewordifferentkindsofbehavior

Byeliminatingpreviouspunishmentsornegativeconsequencesforcertainbehaviors

Theycanuserolemodelingasawaytomotivateotherstoperform

Leaderscanalsochangeculturebythecriteriatheyusetoselectordismissfollowers

Changinganorganization’sculturetakestimeandeffort,andwilllikelybeverydifficult–whywouldaleaderwanttochangeanorganization’sculture?

Itallshoulddependonwhetherthecultureishavingapositiveoranegativeimpactonvariousdesirableoutcomes

Ifacultureissopolitetoeachothertheleadersfeargivinganynegativefeedback,thentheorganizationcannotmoveforward

Atothertimes,organizationalcultureitselfcanbeavictimofchangesinitiallyconsideredtobemerelytechnical

Whenanewtechniquewasintroducedintothecoalminingindustry,itcausedthebreakdownoftraditionalthree-personteamswithunexpectedconsequences

Decreasesinproductivity

Muchhigherlevelsofworkerdissatisfaction

Disruptionofsociallifeamongminers’families

Astheseexamplesshow,organizationalcultureisapowerfulaspectofthesituation

Itcanseemelusiveandunresponsivetosimpleexecutiveorderstochange

Itiseasiertochangeformalaspectsoftheorganizationlikestructureorpoliciesthanitistochangetheculture

Trulysignificantorganizationalchangeortransformationisunlikelytobesuccessfulwithoutaddressingorganizationalcultureaswellastheformalorganization

Achangeeffortismorelikelytosucceedifbasedonanestablishedtheoryoforganizationalculture,andnotmerelysubjectivepreferencesaboutwhatneedstochange

Misguidedtargetsofchangearemorelikelytocreateproblemsthanproduceresults

Thereareanumberoftheoriesoforganizationalculture

Forourpurposes,weexaminejustonetoillustratehowsuchtheoriesuseabstractdimensionstodepictthewaysinwhichworkinginoneorganizationcanfeelsodifferentfromanother

ThetheorywefocusonistheCompetingValuesFramework

ATheoryofOrganizationCulture

TheCompetingValuesFrameworkisdepictedinFigure14.2

Itsnameisderivedfromthefactthatthevaluesdepictedonoppositeendsofeachaxisareinherentlyintensionwitheachother

Itisimpossibleforanorganizationtobebothextremelyflexibleandextremelystableatthesametime

Anorganization’sculturerepresentsabalanceortrade-offbetweenthesecompetingvaluesthattendstoworkforthatorganizationinitsparticularcompetitiveenvironment

Theframeworkwasdesignedtohelporganizationsbemoredeliberateinidentifyingaculturemorelikelytobesuccessfulfortheirgivensituations,andintransitioningtoit

AsyoucanseeinFigure14.2,theintersectionofthecompetingvaluesaxescreatesfourquadrantsdescribingfourdifferentcombinationofvalues

Thedistinctivesetofvaluesinthesequadrantsdefinefouruniqueorganizationalcultures

Organizationsthatemphasizestabilityandcontrol,andfocustheirattentioninward,haveahierarchyculture

Theyhaveformalizedrulesandprocedures

Theytendtobehighlystructuredplacestowork

Standardoperatingproceduresruletheday

Emphasisisonefficiency,smoothfunctioning,anddependableoperations

Examples:governmentagencies,fast-foodchains,largemanufacturingfirms

Organizationsthatemphasizestabilityandcontrolbutfocusonexternalfactorsarecalledmarketcultures

Theirinterestismoreoninteractionswithexternalcustomersandsuppliers

Theyarecompetitiveandresultsoriented

Profitisthemostimportantresult

Thereisemphasisonachievingmeasurablegoals

Thereisapervasiveemphasisonwinningbybeatingthecompetition

Organizationstheemphasizeflexibilityanddiscretion,andfocusprimarilyinward,areknownasclancultures

Thereisastrongsenseofcohesivenessandsharedvalues

Thereisahighdegreeofparticipativenessandconsensusbuilding

Theybelieveinteamwork,loyalty,andtakingcareofpeoplewithintheorganization

Theyseekcontinuingdevelopment

Theycanbethoughtofasrelationshipcultures

Finally,organizationsthatemphasizeahighdegreeofflexibilityanddiscretion,andfocusontheenvironmentoutsidetheorganizationarecalledadhocracycultures

Thiscultureismostresponsivetotheturbulentandrapidlychangingconditionsofthepresentage

Thenameadhocracyhasrootsinthephraseadhoc,whichmeanstemporaryorspecialized

Theseculturesaredynamicandchanging

Theyarethebesttofostercreativity,entrepreneurship,andtheabilitytostayonthecuttingedge

Thecultureemphasizesindividualinitiativeandfreedom

Inactuality,thesefourculturesrepresentidealizedforms,notrealforms

Allculturescontainelementsofallfourofthecultures

Whatdifferentiatesoneculturefromanotheristherelativepredominanceofoneculturetypeovertheothersandrequiringdifferentleadershipstyles

Leadersinhierarchyculturesemphasizemanaginginformation,monitoringoperations,andassuringoperationaldependabilityandreliability

Incontrast,leadersinmarketculturesplaceapremiumonaggressiveness,decisiveness,productivity,andoutperformingexternalcompetitors

Leadersinaclanculturefocusonprocessmorethanoutput,especiallyasitpertainstominimizingconflictandmaximizingconsensus

Leadersinadhocraciesrequirevision,creativity,andfuture-orientedthinking

Onestudysuggestseffectivecompaniespayattentiontoallfourorganizationalcultures

ThatideaiselaboratedinTable14.3

Cultureisjustoneelementofanorganization’scomprehensivesystem,alongwithstrategy,structure,leadership,andotherhigh-performanceworkprocesses

Forsignificanttransformationtooccur,theseelementsallneedtobealigned

AnAfterthoughtonOrganizationalIssuesforStudentsandYoungLeaders

Weconcludethissectionbyaddinganafterthoughtabouttherelevanceorganizationalissuesmayhaveforstudentsorthoseinearlystagesoftheircareers,oratlowerlevelsofleadership

Aprimaryreasonforbeingfamiliarwithsuchorganizationalvariablesisthecontextitprovidesforundersta