第11章　国际商务谈判与跨文化谈判

EssentialsofNegotiationPart03:NegotiationRelationshipsChapter11:InternationalandCross-CulturalNegotiation©McGraw-HillEducation.Allrightsreserved.Authorizedonlyforinstructoruseintheclassroom.NoreproductionorfurtherdistributionpermittedwithoutthepriorwrittenconsentofMcGraw-HillEducation.WhatMakesInternationalNegotiationDifferent?Therearetwocontextswithaninfluenceoninternationalnegotiations.Theenvironmentalcontextincludingenvironmentalforcesthatneithernegotiatorcontrolsthatinfluencethenegotiation.Theimmediatecontextincludesfactorsoverwhichnegotiatorsappeartohavesomecontrol.Understandingfactorsinbothcontextsisimportanttounderstandingthecomplexityofinternationalnegotiationprocessesandoutcomes.2EnvironmentalContext—PoliticalandLegalPluralismFirmsconductingbusinessindifferentcountriesareworkingwithdifferentlegalandpoliticalsystems.Theremaybeimplicationsforthetaxesthatanorganizationpays.Thelaborcodesorstandardsthatitmustmeet.Andthedifferentcodesofcontractlawandstandardsofenforcement.Politicalconsiderationsmayenhanceordetractfromtheconductofbusinessnegotiationinvariouscountriesatdifferenttimes.3EnvironmentalContext—InternationalEconomicsTheexchangevalueofinternationalcurrenciesnaturallyfluctuates,andthisfactormustbeconsideredwhennegotiatingindifferentcountries.Theriskistypicallygreaterforthepartywhomustpayintheothercountry’scurrency.Thelessstablethecurrency,thegreatertheriskforbothparties.Anychangeinvalueofacurrency(upwardordownward)cansignificantlyaffectthevalueofthedealforbothparties.4EnvironmentalContext—ForeignGovernmentsandBureaucraciesCountriesdifferintheextenttowhichthegovernmentregulatesindustriesandorganizations.FirmsintheU.S.arerelativelyfreefromgovernmentintervention.Althoughsomeindustriesaremoreheavilyregulatedthanothers(e.g.powergeneration,defense).Andsomestateshavetougherenvironmentalregulationsthanothers.Ingeneral,businessnegotiationsintheU.S.occurwithoutgovernmentapproval.Thepartiesdecidewhethertoengageinanagreementbasedonbusinessreasonsalone.Incontrast,thegovernmentsofmanycountriessuperviseimportsandjointventures.Politicalconsiderationsmayinfluencenegotiationsmoreheavilythanlegitimatebusinessreasons.5EnvironmentalContext—InstabilityNorthAmericaisrelativelystable.Butinstabilitytakesmanyforms.AlackofresourcesthatAmericanscommonlyexpectduringbusinessnegotiations(paper,electricity,computers).Shortagesofothergoodsandservices(food,reliabletransportation,potablewater).Politicalinstability(coups,suddenshiftsingovernmentpolicy,majorcurrencyrevaluation).Negotiatorsfacingunstablecircumstancesshouldincludeclausesintheircontractsallowingforeasycancellationorneutralarbitrationandconsiderpurchasinginsurancetoguaranteecontractprovisions.6EnvironmentalContext—IdeologyNegotiatorsintheU.S.generallyshareacommonideologyaboutthebenefitsofindividualismandcapitalismandbelieveinthefollowing.Individualrights.Thesuperiorityofprivateinvestment.Theimportanceofmakingaprofitinbusiness.Negotiatorsfromothercountriesmaynotsharethisideology.NegotiatorsfromChinaorFrancemaystressgrouprightsoverindividualrights.Theymaystresspublicinvestmentoverprivateinvestment.Theymayhavedifferentviewsonearningandsharingprofit.Ideologicalclashesincreasecommunicationchallenges.7EnvironmentalContext—CultureCulture’scriticalrolewillbediscussedlater,herearesomehighlights.Peoplefromdifferentculturesappeartonegotiatedifferently.Differentculturesmayinterpretthenegotiationprocessdifferently.Peopleinsomeculturesapproachnegotiationsdeductively.Whereaspeoplefromotherculturesaremoreinductive.Insomecultures,partiesnegotiatesubstantiveissueswhileconsideringtherelationshiptobemoreorlessincidental.Inothercultures,therelationshipisthemainfocusofthenegotiation,andtheissuesaremoreorlessincidental.Preferenceforconflictresolutionsmodelsvariesacrosscultures.8EnvironmentalContext—ExternalStakeholdersExternalstakeholdersarethevariouspeopleandorganizationsthathaveaninterestorstakeintheoutcomeofthenegotiations.Businessassociations.Laborunions.Embassies.Industryassociations,amongothers.9ImmediateContext—RelativeBargainingPowerJointventureshavebeenstudied,andrelativepowerhasbeenviewedastheamountofequityeachsideiswillingtoinvestinthenewventure.Presumingthepartywhoinvestsmoreequityhas

morepowerandmoreinfluenceonthenegotiation

processandoutcome.Someresearchsuggeststhatrelativepowerappearstobeduetomanagementcontroloftheproject,heavilyinfluencedbynegotiating.Severalfactorsinfluencerelativepower.Specialaccesstomarkets.Distributionsystems.Managementofgovernmentrelations.10ImmediateContext—LevelsofConflictThelevelofconflictandtypeofinterdependencebetweenthepartieswillinfluencethenegotiationprocessandoutcome.High-conflictsituations,orconflictsthatareethnically,identity,orgeographicallybased,willbemoredifficulttoresolve.Alsoimportantistheextenttowhichnegotiatorsframethenegotiationdifferentlyorconceptualizewhatthenegotiationconcerns.Thisvariesacrosscultures.Hownegotiatorsrespondtoconflictalsovariesbyculture.Diplomatic“back-channel”negotiationsconductedinsecretmayhelpresolvehighconflictsituations,butsuccessisnotguaranteed.11ImmediateContext—RelationshipsandDesiredOutcomesTherelationshipsamongprincipalnegotiatorsbeforenegotiationsimpactthenegotiationprocessandoutcome.Negotiatorsarepartofthelargerrelationshipbetweentwoparties.Historybetweenthepartiesinfluencescurrentnegotiations,justasthecurrentnegotiationwillinfluenceanyfuturenegotiations.DesiredOutcomes.Tangibleandintangiblefactorsplayalargeroleindeterminingtheoutcomesofinternationalnegotiations.Countriesoftenuseinternationalnegotiationstoachievebothdomesticandinternationalpoliticalgoals.Ongoingtensioncanexistbetweenaparty’sshort-termobjectivesforcurrentnegotiationsanditsinfluenceontheirlong-termrelations.12ImmediateContext—ImmediateStakeholdersTheimmediatestakeholdersinthenegotiationincludethenegotiatorsthemselvesaswellasthepeopletheydirectlyrepresent.Suchasmanagers,employers,orboardsofdirectors.Stakeholderscaninfluencenegotiatorsinmanyways.Negotiatorskills,abilities,andexperiencecanimpacttheprocessandoutcomeofinternationalnegotiations.Personalmotivationsoftheprincipalnegotiatorsandotherimmediatestakeholderscaninfluencethenegotiationprocessandoutcomes.13ConceptualizingCultureandNegotiationTherearemanydifferentmeaningsoftheconceptofculture,butalldefinitionssharetwoimportantaspects.First,cultureisagroup-levelphenomenon.Thatmeansthatadefinedgroupofpeoplesharebeliefs,values,andbehavioralexpectations.Second,culturalbeliefs,values,andbehavioralexpectationsarelearnedandpassedontonewmembersofthegroup.Culturecanbeconceptualizedininternationalnegotiationinfourways.Aslearnedbehavior.Assharedvalues.Asdialectic.Andincontext.14CultureasLearnedBehaviorThisapproachconcentratesoncreatingacatalogueofbehaviorsthattheforeignnegotiatorshouldexpectwhenenteringahostculture.Manybooksandarticlesprovidelistsofdosanddon’ts.Forinstance,Chinesenegotiatorsbeginnegotiationswithasearchforbroadprinciplesandbuildingarelationship.Thisisfollowedbyassessmentofboundariesoftherelationship.Adecisionaboutanagreementwilleventuallybemadeandformthefoundationforfurtherconcessionsandmodifications.15CultureasSharedValuesHofstede’sModelofCulturalDimensions.Individualism/Collectivism.Short-termcriteriaversuslong-termrelationships.PowerDistance.Lowpowerdistancedistributesdecision-making,whilehighpowerdistanceseeksapprovalfromthosehigherup.Masculinity/FemininityCompetitiveversusempathy.UncertaintyAvoidance.Lowuncertaintyavoidersadapttochange,othersadaptlessso.Adrawbackofthismodelisthatallstudiedparticipantscamefromonecompany,weremostlymale,andhighlyeducated.16CultureasDialecticAdialecticisatensionillustratedbytwocommonparables:“toomanycooksspoilthebroth”and“twoheadsarebetterthanone.”Thisapproachremindsyouthatnoteverypersonfromthesameculturesharethesamevalues.Itdoesnotprovidesimpleadviceforbehavinginanegotiation.Recentworkexaminesnegotiationmetaphors.IntheU.S.negotiationissport.InJapan,negotiationisie(traditionalhousehold).Thegreaterthedifferenceinculturalnegotiationmetaphors,themorelikelytherewillbemisunderstanding,andlessprofitableoutcomes.Negotiatorswithstrongerunderstandingofthenegotiationmetaphorwithinaculturearemorelikelytosucceedinnegotiations.17CultureinContextProponentsofthisapproachrecognizehumanbehaviorisnotdeterminedbyasinglecause.Allbehaviormaybeunderstoodatmanylevelssimultaneously.Negotiationisdeterminedbymanyfactors,oneofwhichisculture.Thecultural

complexitytheorysuggeststhatculturalvalueshaveadirecteffectonnegotiationsattimesandamoderateeffectatothertimes.Francehasbothmonarchicalanddemocratictraditions,bothofwhichcaninfluencenegotiationbehaviordependingonthecontext.Onegroupofresearchersnotedtheunwieldynumberofconstructsusedtoexplorecross-culturedifferencesinnegotiation.Theyproposedamodelthatintegratesnegotiationstrategy,trust,culturaltightness-loosenessandmindset(holisticvsanalytic).Theirmodelisanexcellentexampleofstudyingcultureincontext.18TheInfluenceofCultureonNegotiation:ManagerialPerspectivesAccessthetextalternativeforthisimage.Sources:BasedonFoster(1992);HendonandHendon(1990);MoranandStripp(1991);andSalacuse(1998).19Table11.2summarizes10differentwaysthatculturecaninfluencenegotiations.ManagerialPerspectives—DefinitionandOpportunityThefundamentaldefinitionofnegotiation,whatisnegotiable,andwhatoccurswhenwe

negotiatecandiffergreatlyacrosscultures.Americanstendtoviewnegotiatingasacompetitiveprocessofoffersandcounteroffers.WhiletheJapanesetendtoviewthenegotiationasanopportunityforinformation-sharing.Cultureinfluencesthewaynegotiatorsperceiveanopportunityasdistributiveversusintegrative.NegotiatorsinNorthAmericaarepredisposedtoperceivenegotiationasdistributive.ThisisnotthecaseoutsideNorthAmerica.20ManagerialPerspectives—SelectionandProtocolCriteriausedtoselectwhowillparticipatediffersacrossculturesandcanincludethefollowing.Knowledgeofthesubjectmatterbeingnegotiated.Seniorityorevenfamilyconnections.Gender,age,experience,orstatus.Differentculturesweighthecriteriatoselectnegotiators

differently.Culturesdifferinthedegreetowhichprotocol,ortheformalityoftherelationsbetweenthetwonegotiatingparties,isimportant.Americancultureisamongtheleastformalintheworld.Familiarcommunication;firstnamesareused,titlesareignored.Informalcountries,notusingthepropertitleisconsideredrude.BusinesscardsareimportantinthePacificRimcountriesandtheyhavetheirownprotocolforpresentingthecards.21ManagerialPerspectives—CommunicationandTimeSensitivityCulturesinfluencehowpeoplecommunicate,verballyandnonverbally.Differencesinbodylanguageacrossculturesmakesomebehaviorhighlyinsultinginonecultureandinnocuousinanother.PlacingyourfeetonthedeskintheU.S.signalspower,whileinThailand,itisconsideredveryinsulting.Toavoidoffending,theinternationalnegotiatorneedstoobserveculturalrulesofcommunicationcarefully.Culturedetermineswhattimemeansandhowitaffectsnegotiation.IntheU.S.,peoplerespecttimebybeingontime,beingsensitivetonotwastingtime,andbelievingthat“faster”isbetterthan“slower.”Othercultureshavedifferentviewsoftime—especiallyinhotclimates.Arab-speakingculturesfocusonevent-timethanclock-time.InChinaandLatinAmerica,timeisunimportantandnegotiationsfocusonthetask,nomatterhowmuchtimeittakes.22ManagerialPerspectives—RiskPropensityandGroupsversusIndividualsCulturesvaryintheextenttowhichtheyarewillingtotakerisks.Negotiatorsinrisk-orientedcultureswillbemorewillingtomoveearlyonadealandwillgenerallytakemorechances.Thoseinrisk-avoidingculturesaremorelikelytoseekfurtherinformationandtakeawait-and-seestance.Americansfallontherisk-takingendofthecontinuum,asdosomeAsiancultures,whilesomeEuropeanculturesareconservative.Culturesdifferoverwhethertheyemphasizetheindividualorthegroup.TheUnitedStatesisverymuchanindividual-orientedculture,wherebeingindependentandassertiveisvaluedandpraised.Group-orientedcultures,incontrast,favorthesuperiorityofthegroupandseeindividualneedsassecondtothegroup’sneeds.Group-orientedculturesvaluefittinginandrewardteamplayers.23ManagerialPerspectives—NatureofAgreementsandEmotionalismCulturehasanimportanteffectbothonconcludingagreementsandonwhatformthenegotiatedagreementtakes.IntheU.S.,agreementsaretypicallybasedonlogic,areoftenformalized,andenforcedthroughthelegalsystem.Inothercultures,obtainingthedealmaybebasedonwhoyouareratherthanonwhatyoucando.Culturemayinfluencetheextenttowhichnegotiatorsdisplayemotions.Emotionsmaybeusedastactics,ortheymaybeanaturalresponsetopositiveandnegativecircumstancesduringthenegotiation.Whilepersonalitylikelyplaysaroleintheexpressionofemotions,therealsoappearstobeconsiderableculturaldifferences.Therulesthatgoverngeneralemotionaldisplaysinaculturearelikelytobepresentduringnegotiation.24TheInfluenceofCultureonNegotiation:ResearchPerspectivesThelast20yearshasseenanincreaseinresearchoncross-culturalnegotiation,andhasstudiedthefollowingtopics.Theinfluenceofcultureonnegotiationoutcomes.Negotiationprocessandinformationexchange.Negotiatorcognition.Negotiatorethicsandtactics.Conflictresolution.25EffectsofCultureonNegotiationOutcomesResearchusestwoapproacheswhenlookingathowcultureinfluencesnegotiationoutcomes.Intraculturalstudiescompareoutcomesofthesamesimulation.Negotiatorsfromdifferentculturesnegotiatingwithothersfromtheirownculture.Cross-culturalstudiescompareintraculturalandcross-culturaloutcomes.Negotiatingwithpeoplefromthesameculture,comparingoutcomestonegotiatingwithpeoplefromothercultures.Asimpleintraculturalbuyer-sellernegotiationsimulationwasusedwithnegotiatorsfromseveralcultures.Findingsshownodifferenceinprofitlevelsobtainedbynegotiatorsindifferentcultures—U.S.withJapan,China,Canada,BrazilandMexico.Negotiatorsincollectivistculturesaremorelikelytoreachintegrativeoutcomesthannegotiatorsinindividualistcultures.26EffectsofCultureonNegotiationOutcomes

ResearchResultsRichersimulationsidentifieddifferencesinoutcomesbyculture.Butlikelyduetodifferencesinprocessacrosscultures.Thesecondapproachcomparesintraculturalandcross-culturaloutcomes.Cross-culturalnegotiationsresultinpooreroutcomes.Atleastsomeofthetime.Inaddition,somedifferenceswerefoundinthecross-culturalnegotiationprocess.Researchsuggestscultureaffectsnegotiationoutcomes.Thoughitmaynotbedirectly.Andmaybeduetodifferencesinthenegotiationprocessindifferentcultures.Thereissomeevidencethatcross-culturalnegotiationsyieldpooreroutcomesthanintraculturalnegotiations.27EffectsofCultureonNegotiationProcessandInformationExchangeOnegroupofstudiesledtoseveralconclusions.InAmericannegotiations,higherprofitswereassociatedwithmakingopponentsfeeluncomfortable.WhileinJapanesenegotiations,higherprofitswereassociatedwithmakingopponentsfeelcomfortable.Braziliannegotiatorsusingpowerful,deceptivestrategiesreceivedhigheroutcomesthanAmericannegotiatorsusingthesamemethods.GatheringinformationwasnegativelyrelatedtoprofitsattainedbyMexicanandFrench-Canadiannegotiators.WhilethesamestrategieswereunrelatedtoprofitsamongAmericannegotiators.ChineseandU.S.negotiatorsuseddifferentcommunicationpatterns.Chinesenegotiatorsaskedmorequestions,said“no”lessoften,andinterruptedeachothermorefrequentlythanAmericans.28EffectsofCultureonNegotiationProcessandInformationExchange—FurtherResearchAdditionalfindings.Collectivistnegotiatorsfocusonlong-termgoals,andmakelessextremeoffersthanindividualisticnegotiators.U.S.negotiatorsweremostlikelytousedirectinformationexchange,whileJapanesenegotiatorsuseindirectinformationexchange.Negotiatorsfromculturallysimilarcountriesweremorelikelytoshareinformationthannegotiatorsfromlessculturallysimilarcountries.BothU.S.andJapaneseintraculturalnegotiationsreachedhigherjointgainsthancross-culturalnegotiations—buttheyachieveditdifferently.Low-contextcultureshavenegotiatorsusingdirectcommunicationcomparedtoindirectfromnegotiatorsinhigh-contextcultures.AggressiveopeningoffersgiveHongKongnegotiatorsanadvantagewhenusingemailtoconductnegotiations.GermannegotiatorsusedmoreintegrativetacticsthanChinesenegotiatorswhennegotiatingintraculturally.29EffectsofCultureonNegotiatorCognitionAccountabilitytoaconstituentinfluencednegotiatorsfromindividualisticandcollectivisticculturesdifferently.Individualistsgrewcompetitive,collectivistsbecamemorecooperative.Whencomparingcollectivistandindividualistonthesameconflict.Collectivistssawconflictascompromise,bothuseddifferentframes.ChinesenegotiatorsusedmorecompetitivetacticsthanAmericans,butlikelyduetotheirviewofthenegotiationasacompetitivesituation.Whenresearchingcognitiveeffectsofcultureinnegotiation.Individualistsweresusceptibletofixed-pieerrorsthancollectivists.Theself-servingbiaswasstrongerinindividualiststhancollectivists.Collectivistswerelesspronetomakingattributionerrorsduringnegotiationthanwereindividualisticnegotiators.30EffectsofCultureonNegotiatorEthicsandTacticsOnestudyinvestigatedperceptionsofLewickiandRobinson’snegotiationtacticswithnegotiatorsfromsixdifferentcultures.Japanesenegotiatorsweremoreintolerantofmisrepresentation.BraziliansandAmericansscoredsimilarlytoLewickiandRobinson’sethicsquestionnaire.AmericanssaidtheyweremorelikelytousethetacticsthanBrazilians.FromtheSINSquestionnaire,ChinesenegotiatorsweremorelikelytouseethicallyquestionabletacticsthanAmericannegotiators.Theuseandinterpretationofapologiesmaybeinfluencedbyculture.Individualists’apologiesassignblame,collectivists’expressremorse.Collectivistsweremorelikelytoacceptanapologyforanintegrityviolationthanwereindividualists.31CulturallyResponsiveNegotiationStrategiesSeveralfactorssuggestthatnegotiatorsshouldnotmakelargemodificationstotheir

approachwhennegotiatingcross-culturally.First,negotiatorsmaynotbeabletomodifytheirapproacheffectively.Second,itdoesnotmeanthatthis

willtranslateautomaticall