第8章　发现并利用谈判力

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Chapter8

FindingandUsingNegotiationPower

Overview

Inthischapter,wefocusonpowerinnegotiation.Bypower,wemeanthecapabilitiesnegotiatorscanassembletogivethemselvesanadvantageorincreasetheprobabilityofachievingtheirobjectives.Allnegotiatorswantpower;theywanttoknowwhattheycandotoputpressureontheotherparty,persuadetheothertoseeittheirway,gettheothertogivethemwhattheywant,gainonestepupontheother,orchangetheother’smind.Thetacticsofdistributivebargainingandintegrativenegotiationareleveragetactics—tacticsusedtoexertinfluenceovertheotherpartyintheserviceofachievingthebestdeal,mostcommonlyonlyfortheself.

Webeginbyexploringthenatureofpower,showingwhypowerisimportanttonegotiators,anddiscussingsomeofthedynamicsofitsuseinnegotiation.Wefocusonthepowersourcesthatgivenegotiatorscapacitytoexertinfluence.Ofthemanysourcesofpowerthatexist,weconsiderthreemajoronesinthischapter:thepowerofinformationandexpertise;powerderivedfrompersonalityandindividualdifferences;andthebenefitsofpowerthatmayderivefromone’sstructuralpositioninanorganizationornetwork,includingcontroloverresources.Wealsoexplorethenatureoftherelationshipbetweenthenegotiatingpartiesandthepowerderivedfromthespecificcontextofanegotiation.

LearningObjectives

Understanddifferentapproachestodefining“power”innegotiationsandwhypoweriscriticaltonegotiation

Exploredifferentsourcesorbasesofpowerinnegotiation.

Considerdifferentstrategicapproachesfornegotiatorswhohavemorepowerandfornegotiatorswhohavelesspowerandmustdealwithotherswhohavemorepower.

WhyisPowerImportanttoNegotiators?

Mostnegotiatorsbelievethatpowergivesonenegotiatoranadvantageovertheotherparty.Seekingpowerinnegotiationusuallyarisesfromoneoftwoperceptions:

Thenegotiatorbelievestheycurrentlyhavelesspowerthantheotherparty.

Thenegotiatorbelievestheotherpartyhassomeadvantage,sotheyseekpowertooffsetorcounterbalancetheother’sadvantage.

Thenegotiatorbelievestheyneedmorepowerthantheotherpartytoincreasetheprobabilityofsecuringadesiredoutcome.

Thenegotiatorbelievesthataddedpowerisnecessarytogainorsustaintheirownadvantageintheupcomingnegotiation.

Embeddedinthesetwobeliefsaresignificantquestionsoftacticsandmotives.

Tacticsmaybedesignedtoenhancethenegotiator’sownpowerortodiminishtheother’spower,andtocreateastateofeitherpowerequalizationorpowerdifference.

Themotivequestionsrelatetowhythenegotiatorisusingthetactics—usuallytwomajorreasons.

First,andmorecommonly,negotiatorsemploytacticsdesignedtocreatepowerdifferencesasawaytogainadvantageortoblocktheotherparty’spowermoves.

Second,lesscommonlybutequallynecessary,negotiatorsemploytacticsdesignedtocreatepowerequalizationasawaytoleveltheplayingfield—withthegoalofminimizingeitherside’sabilitytodominatetherelationship.

Box8.1(summarizedinthebulletsbelow)presentsaframeworkthatevaluateswhennegotiatorsmightusepowerasatactic,asopposedtoafocusoninterestsoranemphasison“rights”inadispute.

Box8.1:Interests,Rights,andPowerinNegotiation

Negotiatorsfocusoninterestswhentheystrivetolearnabouteachother’sinterestsandprioritiesasawaytoworktowardamutuallysatisfyingagreementthatcreatesvalue.

Negotiatorsfocusonrightswhentheyseektoresolveadisputebydrawingupondecisionrulesorstandardsgroundedinprinciplesoflaw,communitystandardsoffairness,orperhapsanexistingcontract.

Negotiatorsfocusonpowerwhentheyusethreatsorothermeanstotrytocoercetheotherpartyintomakingconcessions.

Negotiatorscyclethroughallthreestrategiesduringthesameencounter.

Negotiatorstendtoreciprocatethesestrategies.

Startinganegotiationbyconveyingyourownpowertocoercecanbringaquicksettlementifyourthreatiscredible.

Powertactics(andrightstactics)maybemostusefulwhentheotherpartyrefusestonegotiateorwhennegotiationsbreakdownandneedtoberestarted.

Thesuccessofpowertactics(andrightstactics)dependstoagreatextentonhowtheyareimplemented.

Ingeneral,negotiatorslessconcernedabouttheirpower(relativetoothers)orwhohavematchedpowerwiththeotherfindtheirdeliberationsareeasierandreachacceptableoutcomes.

Incontrast,negotiatorswhodocareabouttheirpowerandseektomatchorexceedtheother’spowerareseekingasolutionwheretheyeitherdonotlose(adefensiveposition)ordominatethenegotiation(anoffensiveposition).

ADefinitionofPower

Therearetwoperspectivesonpower

Powerusedtodominateandcontroltheother—morelikelyinadistributivebargainingcontext.

Fromthepowerholder’spointofview,thisfitsapoweroverdefinition,implyingthatpowerisfundamentallydominatingandcoercive.

Thereceiverexperiencesthispoweraspowerlessanddependence.

Thedynamicsofthispowerrelationshipcanrangefrombenignandsupportive(mentoring)tooppressiveandabusive(dictatorialparent).

Powerusedtoworktogetherwiththeother—morelikelyinanintegrativenegotiationcontext.

Thepowerholderviewspoweraspowerwith,jointlydevelopingandsharingpowerwiththeother.

Thereceiverexperiencesthispowerasempoweringandindependence,anditsdynamicsreflectthebenefitsofempowerment.

Thestatement“AismorepowerfulthanB”shouldbeviewedfromthreedistinctyetinterrelatedperspectives.

Environmentalpower,or“Aismoreusuallyabletofavorablyinfluencehisoverallenvironmentand/ortoovercomeitsresistancethanisB.”

Relationshippower,or“AisusuallymoreabletoinfluenceBfavorablyand/ortoovercomeB’sresistancethanBisabletodowithA.”

Personalpower,or“AisusuallymoreabletosatisfyhisdesiresthanisB.”

Thereisaweaknessofanydiscussionofpower.

First,theeffectiveuseofpowerrequiresasensitiveanddefttouch,anditsconsequencesmayvarygreatlyfromonepersontothenext.

Second,notonlydothekeyactorsandtargetschangefromsituationtosituation,butthecontextinwhichthetoolsofpoweroperatechangesaswell.

Thisonlyallowsustoidentifyafewkeysourcesofpowerandoffergeneralstatementsabouthowtheyoperateinnegotiationcontexts.

SourcesofPower–HowPeopleAcquirePower

Understandingthedifferentwaysinwhichpowercanbeexercisedisbestaccomplishedbylookingatthevarioussourcesofpower.

Expertpower:derivedfromhavingunique,in-depthinformationaboutasubject.

Rewardpower:derivedbybeingabletorewardothersfordoingwhatneedstobedone.

Coercivepower:derivedbybeingabletopunishothersfornotdoingwhatneedstobedone.

Legitimatepower:derivedfromholdinganofficeorformaltitleinsomeorganizationandusingthepowersassociatedwiththatoffice.

Referentpower:derivedfromtherespectoradmirationapersoncommandsbecauseofattributeslikepersonality,integrity,andinterpersonalstyle.

Inthischapter,wetakeabroaderperspectiveonpowerasitrelatestonegotiationandaggregatethemajorsourcesofpowerintofivedifferentgroupings(SeeTable8.1)

Informationalsourcesofpower.

Powerbasedonpersonalityandindividualdifferences.

Powerbasedonpositioninanorganization.

Relationship-basedsourcesofpower.

Contextualsourcesofpower.

InformationalSourcesofPower

Informationpowerisderivedfromthenegotiator’sabilitytoassembleandorganizefactsanddatatosupporttheirposition,arguments,ordesiredoutcomes.

Inanegotiation,itisthemostimportantsourceofpower.

SeeBox8.2onthewaysthepowerofinformation,availablethroughtheInternet,haschangedthewayspeoplebuycars.

Theexchangeofinformationinnegotiationisalsoattheheartoftheconcession-makingprocess.

Acommondefinitionofthesituationemergesandservesasarationaleforbothsidestomodifytheirpositionsand,eventually,arriveatamutuallyacceptableagreement.

Powerderivedfromexpertiseisaspecialformofinformationpower.

Expertpowerisaccordedtothosewhoareseenashavingachievedsomelevelofcommandandmasteryofabodyofinformation.

Oneorbothpartieswillgiveexperts’argumentsmorecredibilitythanthoseofnon-experts—butonlytotheextentthattheexpertiseisseenasfunctionallyrelevanttothepersuasionsituation.

PowerBasedonPersonalityandIndividualDifferences

Individualshavedifferentpsychologicalorientationstosocialsituations.

Cognitive,motivational,andmoralorientationsguideaperson’sbehaviorandresponsestoasituation.

Orientationsofskillsandmoodsalsoplayapartintheuseofpower.

CognitiveOrientation

Individualdifferencesinideologicalframesofreferencearecentraltounderstandingpower.

Theunitaryframe,believesthatsocietyisanintegratedwholeandtheinterestsofindividualsandsocietyareone.

Powercanbelargelyignored,or,whenneeded,usedbybenevolentauthoritiestobenefitthegoodofall.

Theradicalframe,believessocietyisinacontinualclashofsocial,political,andclassinterests.

Powerisinherentlyandstructurallyimbalanced.

Thepluralistframebelievespowerisdistributedrelativelyequallyacrossgroups.

Groupscompeteandbargainforashareofthecontinuallyevolvingbalanceofpower.

MotivationOrientation

Focusesondifferencesrootedmoreinneedsand“energizingelements”ofthepersonalityratherthaninideology.

Anexampleisthe“powermotive,”thedispositionofsomepeopletohavehighneedstoinfluenceandcontrolothersandtoseekoutpositionsofpowerandauthority.

The“authoritarianpersonality”isanindividualwhohasastrongneedtodominateothersandyet,atthesametime,toidentifywithandsubmittothoseinhighauthority.

Theseorientationsplayoutineitherthe“powerover”or“powerless”situationsofpower,dependingonthestatusoftheotherparty.

DispositionsandRelatedSkills

Orientationstopoweraregroundedinindividualdispositionstobecooperativeorcompetitive.

Competitivedispositionsandskillsmayemphasizethe“powerover”approachandsuggeststhatpeoplewiththesedispositionsmaintainskillssuchassustainingenergyandstamina,maintainingfocus,andhavinghighexpertise,strongself-confidence,andhightoleranceforconflict.

Cooperativedispositionsandskillsaremorealliedwiththe“powerwith”approach,emphasizingskillssuchassensitivitytoothers,flexibility,andabilitytoconsiderandincorporatetheviewsofothersintoanagreement.

MoralOrientationtowardPower

Individualsdifferintheirmoralviewsaboutpoweranditsuse.

Thegeneralbeliefisthateverynegotiatordominantlyactsonthebasisofself-interest—doingwhatisbestforthemselves.

Butdifferencesinthepursuitofself-interestaffectstheuseofethicalandunethicaltacticsinnegotiation.

Thereisastronginterrelationshipbetweenanindividual’sself-interestandtheir“moralidentity.”

Thosewithastrongmoralidentityarelesslikelytoactintheirownself-interest,evenwhentheyhavemorepowerovertheother.

Thenotionthat“powercorrupts”isnotalwaystrue—astrongmoralidentitycanmoderatethistendency.

Moods

Anegotiator’smoodcanalsocreatepower,andpowerenhancestheimpactofemotionalexpression.

Forapowerfulnegotiator,angerishelpfulandtendstofocusattentiononwhattheywant,leadingthemtobemoreassertive,andclaimmorevalue.

Lowpowernegotiatorsdonotrespondtotheirownemotionsandaremorelikelytobedrawnintotheotherparty’semotionalstate,arelessfocusedandsurrendervaluetotheother.

PowerBasedonPositioninanOrganization(StructuralPower)

Wediscusstwodifferentapproachestostructurethatcaninfluencenegotiatingpower.

Thefirstwayisconsistentwithmoretraditionalapproachestoorganizationalstructure—ahierarchyofjobsformingatraditionalorganizationalchart.

Thesecondwayisconsistentwithanewerapproachtoorganizationalstructurethatconsidersnetworks,andshowshowanegotiator’slocationinanetworkcancontributetobargainingpower.

PowerDerivedfromTraditionalOrganizationalHierarchy

Powerbasedonpositionintraditionalhierarchiescantaketwoforms.

Legitimatepower,whichisgroundedinthespecifictitle,duties,andresponsibilitiesofajobdescriptionand“level”withinanorganizationalhierarch.

Resourcepower,basedonthecontroloverresources(budget,funding,etc.)associatedwiththatposition.

LegitimatePower

Derivedfromoccupyingaparticularjob,office,orpositioninanorganizationalhierarchy.

Legitimatepowerisatthefoundationofoursocialstructure.

Withoutsocialorder,groupshavedifficultytakinganycoordinatedaction,oreveryonetriestoparticipateineverydecisionandgroupcoordinationtakesforever.

Peoplecanacquirelegitimatepowerinseveralways.

Itmaybeacquiredatbirth(theQueen).

Itmaybeacquiredbyelectiontoadesignatedoffice(thePOTUS).

Itmayisderivedsimplybyappointmentorpromotiontosomeorganizationalposition(theCEOofalargecorporation).

Somelegitimateauthoritycomestoanindividualwhooccupiesapositionforwhichotherssimplyshowrespect(clergy).

Theeffectivenessofformalauthorityisderivedfromthewillingnessoffollowerstoacknowledgethelegitimacyoftheorganizationalstructureandthesystemofrulesandregulationsthatempowersitsleaders.

Inshort,legitimatepowercannotfunctionwithoutobedienceortheconsentofthegoverned.

Becauselegitimatepowercanbeunderminediffollowerschoosenottorecognizethepowerholder’sauthority,itisnotuncommonforpowerholderstoaccumulateotherpowersourcestofortifytheirpowerbase.

Legitimatepowerisoftenderivedfrommanipulatingtheseothersourcesofpower—militaryorganizationsstilldrilltheirpersonnelinordertoteachdisciplineandobedience,monitortheirpeople,andpunishorrewardperformance.

Itisalsopossibletoapplythenotionoflegitimacytocertainsocialnormsorconventionsthatexertstrongcontroloverpeople:

Thelegitimatepowerofreciprocity—“Ididyouafavor;Iexpectyoutodooneforme.”

Thelegitimatepowerofequity—“Iwentoutofmywayforyou;theleastyoucoulddoformeiscomplywithmywishes.”

Thelegitimatepowerofresponsibilityordependence—“Iunderstoodthattheotherreallyneededhelponthisandcouldnotdoitalone.”

ResourcePower

Peoplewhocontrolresourceshavethecapacitytogivethemtosomeonewhowilldowhattheywantandwithholdthem(ortakethemaway)fromsomeonewhodoesn’tdowhattheywant.

Importantorganizationalresourcesinclude:

Money,initsvariousforms.

Supplies.

Humancapital.

Time.

Equipment.

Criticalservices.

Interpersonalsupport.

Theabilitytocontrolanddispenseresourcesisamajorpowersourceinorganizations.

Poweralsocomesfromcreatingaresourcestockpileinanenvironmentwhereresourcesappeartobescarce.

Politicalandcorporatefiguresbuildempiresfoundedonresourcecontrol.

Touseresourcesasabasisforpower,negotiatorsmustdevelopormaintaincontroloversomedesirablerewardthattheotherpartywantsorcontroloversomepunishmenttheotherseekstoavoid.

Theserewardsandpunishmentscanbetangibleorintangible,suchasliking,approval,respect,andsoon.

Successfulcontroloverresourcesrequiresthattheotherpartydealdirectlywiththepowerholder.

Thepowerholdermustbewillingtoallocateresourcesdependingontheother’scomplianceorcooperationwiththepowerholder’srequests.

Thenewcorporategoldenrule:“Whoeverhasthegoldmakestherules.”

PowerBasedonLocationinaNetwork

Anothermajortypeofstructuralpowercomesfromlocationinanorganizationalstructure,butnotnecessarilyahierarchicalone—here,powerisderivedfromcriticalresourcesthatflowthroughaparticularlocation(usuallyinformationandmoney).

Thepersonoccupyingthatpositionmaynothaveaformaltitleorofficebuttheirleveragecomesfromtheabilitytocontrolandmanagethecriticalresourcesthatflowthroughthatposition.

Understandingpowerinthiswayisderivedfromconceptualizingorganizationsnotasahierarchybutasanetworkofinterrelationshipswithkeyindividualsseenascirclesornodesandrelationshipbetweenindividualsaslinesoftransaction.

SeeFigure8.1foranexampleofanetworkascomparedwithanorganizationalhierarchy.

Inanetwork,thelines(ties)representflowsandconnectindividualsorgroups(nodes)whoactuallyinteractwitheachother.

Informalhierarchies,authorityisrelatedtohowhighthepositionisintheverticalorganizationalchartandhowmanypeoplereporttothatindividual.

Innetworks,powerisdeterminedbylocationwithintheflowsthatoccuracrossthatnodeinthenetwork.

Threekeyaspectsofnetworksshapepower:tiestrength,tiecontent,andnetworkstructure.

TieStrength

Anindicationofthestrengthorqualityofrelationshipswithothers.

Qualitymaybemeasuredbyhowclosetwonodesare,howmuchpersonalinformationtheyshare,orhowmuchoneperson(node)iswillingtogooutoftheirwayfortheother.

Strengthcanbedeterminedbyhowoftenthepartiesinteract,howlongtheyhaveknowneachother,howclosetheirpersonalrelationshipis,howmanywaysthetwointeract,andhowmuchreciprocitythereisintherelationship.

Strongertiesusuallyindicategreaterpowertoinfluencetheother.

TieContent

Contentistheresourcethatpassesalongthetiewiththeotherperson.

Themorethecontentofthetiesbuildsastrongpersonalrelationship,themorethetiescreatetrustandrespectforeachotherandthestrongerthetiewillbe.

NetworkStructure

Thisreferstotheoverallsetofrelationshipswithinasocialsystem.

Someaspectsofnetworkstructurethatdeterminepowerinanetworkinclude:

Centrality

Themorecentralanodeis,themorepowerthatnode’soccupantwillhave.

Maybedeterminedbythenumberofconnectionsintoandthroughanode,bythetotalnumberoftransactionsthatpassthroughanode,orbythedegreetowhichthenodeisintegraltomanagingacertaininformationflow.

InFigure8.1,thestarhasgreatercentralityandthereforemorepower.

Criticalityandrelevance

Alargeamountofinformationmaynotflowthroughanode,butwhatdoesflowthroughitmaybeessential.

Theymaybeinfrequentcontactwithmoreimportantpeopleandrequiredtointegrateinformationfromthosecontactsintoarecommendation,anactionstrategy,oradecision.

InFigure8.1,liaisonsandlinkingpinsperformthisrole.

Beingcritical—evenirreplaceable—isacorepartofgettingandmaintainingpower.

Flexibility

Thisisthedegreetowhichtheindividualcanexercisediscretioninhowcertaindecisionsaremadeorwhogainsaccess.

Aclassicexampleistheroleofgatekeeper(Figure8.1),thepersonwhocontrolsaccesstoakeyfigureorgroup.

Visibility

Thisreferstohowvisiblethetaskperformanceistoothers—notnecessarilythesameascentralityorcriticality.

Anodewithhighcentralityandcriticalitymaynotnecessarilybevisible,butifitisnot,itismuchlesslikelytoberecognizedandrewarded.

Membershipinacoalition

Anodecanbeamemberofoneormoresubgroupsorcoalitions.

Themorecoalitionsyoubelongto,themorelikelyyouwillbetofind“friends”whocanhelpyoumeetkeypeople,obtain“inside”information,andaccomplishobjectives.

PowerBasedonRelationships

Twotypesofpowerarediscussedhere:goalinterdependenceandreferentpower.

GoalInterdependence

Howthepartiesviewtheirgoals—andhowmuchachievementoftheirgoaldependsonthebehavioroftheotherparty—hasastrongimpactonhowlikelypartieswillbetoconstructivelyusepower.

Cooperativegoalstendtoshapethe“powerwith”orientation,inducinghigherexpectationsofassistance,moreassistance,greatersupport,morepersuasionandlesscoercion,andmoretrustingandfriendlyattitudes.

Competitivegoalsleadthepartiestopursuea“powerover”orientations;toreinforceorenhanceexistingpowerdifferences;andtousethatpowertomaximizeaperson’sowngoals,oftenattheexpenseoftheother.

Forexample,relationshipsandgoalinterdependencearekeysourcesofpowerinsalarynegotiations—seeBox8.3.

ReferentPower

Referentpowerisoftenbasedonanappealtocommonexperiences,commonpast,commonfate,ormembershipinthesamegroups.

Itismadesalientwhenonepartyidentifiesthedimensionofcommonalityinanefforttoincreasetheirpower(usuallypersuasiveness)overtheother.

Likeexpertpower,referentpowercanalsohavenegativeforms.

Negativereferentpowerisoftenusedwhenpartiesseektocreatedistanceordivisionbetweenthemselvesandothersortolabeltheother.

ContextualSourcesofPower

Powerbasedinthecontext,situation,orenvironmentinwhichnegotiationstakeplace.

Innegotiation,theseshort-termsourcesarecriticalandsuggestwaysthatnegotiatorswhofeelpowerlesscanbuildshort-termpowerbasestoenhancetheirleverage.

BATNAs

TheavailabilityofaBATNAoffersanegotiatorsignificantpowerbecausetheynowhaveachoicebetweenacceptingtheotherparty’sproposalorthealternativedeal.

AnyviableBATNAgivesthenegotiatorthechoicetowalkawayfromthecurrentdealortousetheBATNAasleveragetostrikeabetteragreementinthecurrentconversation.

AstrongBATNAisasourceofpower.

First,havingastrongBATNAincreasesthelikelihoodthatyouwillmakethefirstoffer.

Second,havingagoodBATNAincreasesyourownoutcomes,comparedwithnothavingaBATNA.

Third,goodBATNAsnotonlygiveyousomeleverageovertheotherparty,buttheygiveyouconfidencethatyouhaveviablechoicessoyoudonottakeasolutiondictatedtoyoubytheother.

Finally,onestudyshowsthathavingalternativesleadsnegotiatorstoaheightenedsenseofentitlementandhigheraspirationsforsettlementwiththecurrentopponent—higheraspirationstendtomotivateopportunisticbehavior.

Culture

Cultureisasystemofbasicassumptions,norms,and/orcommonvaluesthatindividualsinagroupororganizationshareabouthowtointeractwitheachother,worktogether,dealwiththeexternalenvironment,andmovetheorganizationintothefuture.

Cultureoftenshapeswhatkindsofpowerareseenaslegitimateandillegitimateorhowpeopleuseinfluenceandreacttoinfluence.

Cultureoftencontainsmanyimplicit“rules”aboutuseofpowerandwhether“powerover”or“powerwith”processesareseenasmoreorlessappropriate.

Nationalculturesdifferinthedegreetowhichthese“powerover”or“powerwith”orientationsaresupportedorencouraged.

“Powerdistance”distinguishesnationalculturesfromeachother.

Cultureshighinpowerdistanceacceptinherentinequalityintheirsocialstructure—thatsomepeoplehave“powerover”others.

Cultureslowinpowerdistanceembraceabroadnormof“powerwith”sothatdecision-makingpowerisspreadthroughtheculturesodemocraticdecisionmakinganddelegationtoexpertsisaccepted.

Culture—bothorganizationalandnational—oftentranslatesintodeeplyembeddedstructuralinequalitiesinasociety.

Manysignificantsocialandeconomicinequalitiesrequiresignificanteffortandattentionovermanyyearstointroducemeaningfulchange.

Agents,ConstituenciesandExternalAudiences

Negotiationsbecomesignificantlymorecomplexwhennegotiatorsarerepresentingothers’views.

Whenalloftheseotherpartiesareinvolvedinanegotiation,theycansignificantlychangethepowerdynamics.

DealingWithOthersWhoHaveMorePower

Sofar,wehavefocusedonthewaysnegotiatorscanassembleandusepowertotheiradvantage,butnegotiatorsareoftenonthereceivingendofthatpower.

Weendthechapterwithsomeadvicetonegotiatorswhoareinalow-powerposition.

Neverdoanall-or-nothingdeal.

Low-powerpartiesshouldattempttodiversifyriskbyenteringintodealswithseveralpartnerssothatnosinglehigh-powerplayercouldwipeoutthelow-powerpartner.

Maketheotherpartysmaller.

Attempttoestablishmultiplerelationshipsandengageinmultiplenegotiationswhichmayallowyouto“divideandconquer”thehigh-powerparty.

Makeyourselfbigger.

Attempttobuildcoalitionswithotherlow-powerplayerstoincreaseyourcollectivebargainingpower.

Attemptingto“makeyourselfbigger”bybecomingaggressiveleadstosignificantly