第10章　多方谈判与团队谈判

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Chapter10

MultipleParties,Groups,andTeamsinNegotiation

Overview

Thepurposeofthischapteristounderstandhowthenegotiationprocesschangeswhentherearemorethantwopartiesatthetablesimultaneously.Mostofwhathasbeenaddressedinearlierchaptersassumeda“one-on-one”negotiationsituation.Inthischapter,weexaminehowdynamicschangewhengroups,teams,andtaskforceshavetopresentindividualviewsandcometoacollectiveagreementaboutaproblem,plan,orfuturecourseofaction.

LearningObjectives

Understandthewaysnegotiationsbecomemorecomplexwhentherearemorethantwonegotiatorsatthebargainingtable.

Applyanunderstandingofeffectivegroupprocessestothedynamicsofamultipartynegotiation.

Spelloutthekeystagesformanaginganeffectivemultipartynegotiation.

TheNatureofMultipartyNegotiations

Amultipartynegotiationisoneinwhichmorethantwointerestedpartiesareworkingtogetheratthetabletoachieveacollectiveobjective.

ThegeneralmodelforamultipartynegotiationisrepresentedinFigure10.1.

Eachparty—therecanbethreeormore—isrepresentingtheirowninterests.

Inadifferentsituation,eachpartymayberepresentingtheinterestsofothers—showninFigure10.2.

Complexitiesincreaselinearly,ifnotexponentially,asmoreparties,constituencies,andaudiencesareadded.

Inthischapter,wenotethefactorsthatmakemultipartynegotiationsmoredifficulttomanagethanone-on-onenegotiations.

Wenotekeystagesandphasesofmultipartydeliberations.

Ateachphase,weconsiderstrategiesthatcanhelpmanagemultipartynegotiations.

Weshowthewaysthecomplexityofmultipartynegotiationsmakethemsusceptibletobreakdown.

Effectivelymanagingmultipartynegotiationsrequiresaconsciouscommitmentfromthepartiesastheyworktowardanagreement.

DifferencesbetweenTwo-PartyNegotiationsandMultipartyNegotiations

Thedifferencesarewhatmakemultipartynegotiationsmorecomplex,challenging,anddifficulttomanage.

NumberofParties

Multipartynegotiationshavemorenegotiatorsatthetable.

Eachpartymaybeactingasaprincipal—representingtheirowninterests

AsinFigure10.1.

Orasanagent—representingtheinterestsofatleastoneotherparty—theconstituency

AsinFigure10.2.

Partiesmayhavedifferentsocialrolesoutsidethenegotiationtransferringtoequalorunequalpowerandstatusinthenegotiation.

InformationalandComputationalComplexity

Withmultipartynegotiationstherearemoreissues,moreperspectivesonissuesandmoretotalinformationintroduced.

Keepingtrackofallthisinformation,theperspectivesofeachside,andtheboundariesandlimitationsintowhichasolutionmustfitbecomesamajorchallengeforthenegotiators.

SocialComplexity

Socialenvironmentchangesfromaone-on-onedialoguetoasmall-groupdiscussion.Asaresult,allthedynamicsofsmallgroupsbegintoaffectthewaythenegotiatorsbehave.

First,howtheprocessevolvesmaydependonthemotivationalorientation(cooperativeversusindividualistic)ofthepartiestowardeachother.

Cooperativenegotiatorsmaybemorelikelytoachievehigher-qualityoutcomesandcanbemoretrustingandengageinlessargumentation.

Itmayevenaffecthowissuesarediscussed—coveredlater.

Second,socialpressuresmaydevelopforthegrouptoactcohesively,yetthemembersareinconflictwitheachotherandcannotbecohesiveunlesstheycanfindanacceptablesolution.

Thepartiescandeveloptheirowndysfunctionaldynamicssuchaspushingmemberstoavoidconflict,orself-censortheirreservationsorconcernscanleadtoadecisionwithdisastrousconsequences(BayofPigs,ortheshuttleChallenger).

ProceduralComplexity

Morecomplexthantwo-partynegotiationsinthattheprocesstheyhavetofollowismorecomplicated.

Proceduralcomplexityensues—whoseturnisittodowhat?—withseveralconsequences.

Negotiationswilltakelonger,soallowmoretime.

Morepartiesmeansthemorecomplexandoutofcontroltheprocesscanbecome—especiallyifsomeparties’strategiesleadtodominatingtheconversation.

Becauseofthefirsttwoelements,negotiatorswilllikelydevotediscussiontimetohowtheywillmanagetheprocesstoreachagreement.

Partiesmustdecidehowtheywanttoapproachmultipleissuesonthetable.

Thosediscussingmultipleissuessimultaneously—consideringeverythingandlookingforwaystotradeoff—achievedhigher-qualityagreementsandweremorelikelytoreachagreementthanthosediscussingissuessequentially.

LogisticalComplexity

Ifpartiesarenotinthesameroomandmustcommunicatebyelectronicmethods,orareevenphysicallyfarawayfromeachother,theyaremorelikelytofeelsociallydisconnectedandreactlesspositivelytowardeachother.

Physicaldistancecanaffecthowmuchthepartiestrusteachother,thewaystheyinterpretunclearorambiguousbehavior,andthewillingnesstocontinuenegotiationwitheachotherasaconflictresolutionstrategy.

Thisdistance—whetherphysicalorpsychological—seemstoaffecthowpartiesmakesenseofandinterpretwhatothersaredoingandwhether“signals”areinterpretedasindicationsofcooperativeorcompetitivebehavior.

Facilitateanintegrativeagreementbybringingthepartiesintoclosephysicalcontact.

Alsohelptheminterpretwhattheotherpartyisdoinginsituationswheredirect,face-to-facecontactmaynotbepossible.

StrategicComplexity

Inagroupnegotiation,complexityincreasessignificantly.

Thenegotiatormustconsiderthestrategiesofalltheotherpartiesatthetableanddecidewhethertodealwitheachofthemseparatelyorasagroup.

Theactualprocessofdealingwitheachofthemusuallyevolvesintoaseriesofone-on-onenegotiations,whichcanhaveseveralconsequences.

First,theseexchangesaresubjecttosurveillanceandaudiencedynamics.

Asaresult,negotiatorsmayadoptdistributivestrategiesandtacticstoappeartough.

Oncethepartieshavebecomestronglypositional,negotiatorswillhavetofindawaytoexplaintheirconcessionstotheirconstituencies.

Second,negotiatorswhohavesomewaytocontrolthenumberofpartiesatthetablemaybegintoactstrategically,usingthiscontroltoservetheirobjectives—suchas

Toenhancetheirperceivedpowerthroughsheernumbers,

Toimpresstheotherbydisplayingtheprestigeofsupporters,

Ortopresentsomecrediblethreatabouttheconsequencesthatwilloccurifthenegotiatorsdonotgettheirway.

Third,negotiatorscanexplicitlyengageincoalitionbuildingasawaytomarshalsupport.

Theycanusethecoalitiontoeitherdominatetheprocessorshapethedesiredsettlement.

Coalitionsmaybeformedpriortonegotiationsorduringnegotiationbreaks,ortheymayemergeasthediscussionproceeds.

Coalitionscanexerttheirstrengthinanumberofways:

Byexpressingsolidaritywitheachother,

Byagreeingtohelpeachotherachievetheircommonorindividualobjectives,

Bydominatingdiscussiontime,and

Byagreeingtosupporteachotherassolutionsemerge.

Emergenceofconsensusindecision-makinggroupsproceedsasa“snowballcoalition.”

Inamultipartydiscussion,asinformationissharedandsolutionsdeliberated,afewpeoplewillemergewithacommonperspective

Andthenagreetosupporteachother’sviews.

Otherindividualsthennegotiatewiththeemergingcollationtoincorporatetheirviews.

Thoseunwillingtonegotiateormodifytheirviewsareeventuallyrejectedandleftoutofthecollectivedecision.

Excludednegotiatorsreceivealessershareoftheoutcomethanthosepresentfortheduration.

Involvementisimportant,especiallyinthesecondhalfofnegotiationswhensettlementsareemerging.

Finally,relationshipsarethemostsignificantforceinshapingwhichpartieswillentercoalitionswitheachotherinamultipartynegotiation.

Whatthepartieshavedoneforeachotherinthepast,and/orwhattheythinktheycandoforeachotherinthefuture,hasastrongimpactonthecurrentdiscussions.

WhatDynamicsCanMakeaMultipartyNegotiationEffective?

Understandingmultipartynegotiationmeans,inpart,understandingtheattributesofaneffectivegroups—whichdothefollowingthings:

Testassumptionsandinferences.

Membersmaketheirassumptionsandinferencesclearbecauseuncheckedassumptionsandinferencescanleadtounfoundedconclusions.

Shareasmuchrelevantinformationaspossible.

Competitivenegotiatorsuseinformationstrategically.

Effectivegroupsrequireinformationsharingthatoccursinintegrativenegotiation.

Partiesshoulddiscusstheirinterests,butnotdisclosetheirwalkawayorBATNA.

Focusoninterests,notpositions.

Multipartydeliberationsshoulduseproceduresthatsurfaceunderlyinginterestsofindividualmembers,ratherthanjusttakingtheirstatedpositions.

Shareinformation,askquestions,andprobeforunderlyinginterestsandneeds.

Explainthereasonsbehindone’sstatements,questions,andanswers.

Becleartoothersaboutwhatismostimportantandindicatewhythosethingsareimportant.

Bespecific—useexamples.

Talkinspecifictermsaboutobservablebehaviors,people,places,andevents.

Generalitiescanleadtomisunderstandingsorambiguitythatcansendproblemsolvingofftrack.

Agreeonthemeaningofimportantwords.

Fullyexplainanddefinekeywordsorlanguagethatmaybepartofanagreement.

Forexample,ifalldecisionsaretobemadebyconsensus,defineconsensus.

Disagreeopenlywithanymemberofthegroup.

Conflictifforcedundergroundifdisagreementsarewithheld,whichcanleadtoaninabilitytoreachconsensusorimplementaplan.

Disagreementcanbeproductivewithoutbeingoffensive.

Makestatements;theninvitequestionsandcomments.

Diversityofviewpointsshouldnotjustbereservedfordisagreeingwithanother,butshouldalsobeinvitedfromothers.

Encourageotherstoclarifytheirownunderstandingofyourinterestsandneeds.

Jointlydesignwaystotestdisagreementsandsolutions.

Developaprocessforconfirmingfacts,verifyinginterpretationsofevents,andsurfacingthereasonsfordisagreementssothatproblemsolvingcanmoveforward.

Thisprocesscanbefacilitatedbyanyonenotdirectlyinvolvedinthecentraldebate.

Wereturntothisissuelaterinthechapter.

Discussundiscussableissues.

Groupshaveissuesthatareconsideredundiscussable.

Gettingtheseissuesonthetablemaybecriticalforthegrouptobeproductive.

Oneapproachistodiscusstheundiscussabilityofanimportantnorm,rule,orproblemandstatetheimpliedconsequencesofdiscussingthattopicopenly.

Keepthediscussionfocused.

Developanagendaandhavethechairmanagetheprocesstoensurethatdiscussionsdonotwanderuntileveryonehasbeenheard.

Donottakecheapshotsorcreateirrelevantsidetracksorotherwisedistractthegroup.

Distractions,sarcasm,irrelevantstories,andhumorarealldistractionstakingtheconversationofftaskandofffocus.

Althoughsomeisinevitable,keepdistractionstoaminimum.

Expecttohaveallmembersparticipateinallphasesoftheprocess.

Allpartiesmustbewillingtocontributetoallphasesoftheprocess—sharingrelevantinformation,workingtohelparriveatasolution,orhelpingmanagetheprocess.

Exchangerelevantinformationwithpartiesnotatthetable.

Ifoutsidersareinvitedinasexperts,theyshouldbefullybriefedonthegroundrulesforparticipationandaskedtocomplywiththem.

Makedecisionsbyconsensus.

Unanimousdecisionsarenotalwayspossible,butpartiesshouldstriveforconsensuswheneverpossible.

Wereturnto“decisionrules”laterinthechapter.

Conductaself-critique.

Iffuturenegotiationsareexpected,partiesshouldspendsometimeevaluatingtheirprocessandeffectiveness.

Groupsthatdonotworkwelltogetherseldomtakethisstep.

Notdiscussingthedysfunctionalitiesusuallymakesitworse.

ManagingMultipartyNegotiations

Whatisthemosteffectivewaytocopewithmultipartynegotiations?

Therearethreekeystages:theprenegotiationstage,managingtheactualnegotiations,andmanagingtheagreementstage.

Inthenextsectionweaddressthesethreestagesandidentifywhatasinglenegotiatorcandowhen:

Theindividualisoneofthepartiesinamultipartynegotiationandwantstoensuretheirownissuesandinterestsareclearlyincorporatedintothefinalagreement.

Theindividualwantstoensurethegroupreachesthehighest-qualityandbestpossiblefinalagreement.

Theindividualisresponsibleforoverseeingamultipartynegotiationprocesstoensurethatmanyofthestrategicandproceduralcomplexitiesareeffectivelymanaged.

ThePrenegotiationStage

Thisstageischaracterizedbyalotofinformalcontactamongtheparties.

Partiesworkonanumberofimportantissues:

Whoisatthetable

Whethercoalitionscanbeformed

Whatmemberrolesdifferentpartieswilltake

Understandingtheconsequencesofnoagreement

Andconstructinganagenda

IdentifyParticipants

Thepartiesmustagreeonwhoisgoingtobeinvitedtothetalks.

Foranintactgroup,thisiseasybutforcomplexinternationalnegotiations,thiscantakeagreatdealoftime.

Issuesaboutparticipantscanbedecidedonthebasisofthefollowing:

Whomustbeincludedifadealistobereached(keycoalitionmembers)?

Whocouldspoilthedealiftheyareexcluded(possiblevetoplayers)?

Whosepresenceislikelytohelpotherpartiesachievetheirobjectives(desirablecoalitionmembers)?

Whosepresenceislikelytokeepotherpartiesfromachievingtheirobjectives(keycoalitionblockers)?

Whosestatuswillbeenhancedsimplybybeingatthetable?(NorthKorea’sKimJongUn’sstatuswasenhancedbybeingabletomeetdirectlywithPresidentDonaldTrump.)

FormCoalitions

Itisnotuncommonforcoalitionstoexistbeforenegotiationsbeginorforcoalitionstoorganizeinanticipationofthemeetingofalltheparties.

Coalitionsmayformtoeitherpromoteorblockaparticularagendaitem.

DefineMemberRoles

Ifagroupisalreadyformed,theserolesmayalreadybedetermined.

Butiftheyaremeetingforthefirsttime,thenpartiesmayjockeyforkeyroles.

Table10.1describesthreetypesofrolesthatmemberscanplay—summarizedinbulletsbelow.

Taskrolesmovethegroupalongtowardadecisionorconclusion.

Initiating/offeringrolesoffernewideas.

Informationseekingrolesaskothersfortheirviews.

Opinionseekingrolesaskothersfortheiropinionsandjudgments.

Elaboratingrolesclarifyandexpandonatopic.

Evaluatingrolesofferjudgmentsaboutthetopic.

Coordinatingrolespulltogetherideasproposedbyothers.

Energizingrolescreateexcitementaboutthetopicbeingdiscussed.

Relationshiprolesmanageandsustaingoodrelationshipsbetweengroupmembers.

Encouragingrolessupportothers’commentsandcontributions.

Harmonizingrolessmoothoverconflictandreinforce“we-ness”ofthegroup.

Compromisingrolesshiftone’sownpositioninordertofindamiddlegroupofopinionbetweenpeople.

Gatekeepingrolesencourageparticipationfromthosewhodonotspeakoftenanddiscourageparticipationfromthosewhospeakfrequently.

Standardsettingrolesaskfororofferstandardsforjudgingtheteam’seffectiveness.

Self-orientedrolesservetobringattentiontotheindividualgroupmember,oftenattheexpenseofgroupeffectiveness.

Blockingrolesactnegatively,activelyandfrequentlydisagreeingwithothers.

Recognitionsseekerrolesdrawthegroup’sattentiontothemselves,seekingapprovalfromothers.

Dominatingrolesspeakfrequently,dominatetheconversation,andmanipulatethegrouptowardtheirpreferredoutcome.

Avoidingrolesremainquietanddisengaged,withholdingcontributionsoneithertaskorrelationshipissues.

UnderstandtheCostsandConsequencesofNoAgreement

Inone-on-oneencounters,aBATNAisimportant.

But,whatifagroupofvice-presidentsaredirectedtomakeadecision.

Whowilldecideiftheyreachanimpasse?

Thepresidentofthecompany?Howwillthepresidentreact?

Arethecoststhesameforeverynegotiator?

Differentagentshavedifferentcostsassociatedwithnoagreement.

Thegroupmemberswiththebetterimpassealternative(BATNA)arelikelytohavemorepowerinthenegotiationbecausetheycarelessaboutwhetherthegroupreachesaparticularsolutionrelativetonoagreement.

Doallpartiesperceivetheiragreementandno-agreementoptionsaccurately?

Negotiatorsarepronetoperceptualbiasesthatleadthemtobelieve

theyarebetterthanothers,

theiroptionsarebetterthanothers’options,

theyaremorelikelytoachievetheiroutcomesthanothers,

theyhavemorecontrolovershapinganoutcomethanothers.

Inmultipartynegotiations,thesebiasesarelikelytoaffectnegotiatorsbyinflatingtheirsenseofpowerandabilitytowin—leadingthemtobelievethattheno-agreementalternativeismuchbetterthanitreallyis.

LearntheIssuesandConstructanAgenda

Therearemanyreasonswhyanagendacanbeaneffectivedecisionaid:

Itestablishestheissuesthatwillbediscussed.

Dependingonhowtheissuesareworded,itcanalsodefinehoweachissueisdiscussed.

Itcandefinetheorderinwhichissuesarediscussed.

Itcanbeusedtointroduceprocessissuesaswellassubstantiveissues,simplybyincludingthem.

Itcanassigntimelimitstovariousitems,therebyindicatingtheimportanceofthevariousissues.

Inadditiontocreatinganagenda,partiesmightalsoagreetoabidebyasetofgroundrules—waystoconductthemselvesduringthenegation.

TheConnectModelisaprovenapproachtobuildingeffectivegrouprelationships.

Table10.2overviewsthefourkeyrequirementsandstepsinthisprocessmodel—summarizedinfollowingbullets.

Thefirstrequirementis:Canweagreetohaveaconstructiveconversation?

Theprocessistwofold.

Committotherelationship—signalthatyouarereadytoworkontheproblemanditisworthdoing.

Optimizesafety—youwilldoyourbesttonotmaketheotherfeeldefensive,andyouwilltrytoappreciatetheother’spointofview.

Thesecondrequirement:Canourconversationbeproductiveenoughtomakeadifference?

Theprocessistwofold.

Narrowthediscussiontooneissue—identifyoneissueatatimeinanonthreateningway.

Neutralizedefensiveness—minimizeusingwords,terms,ordescriptionsthatmaketheotherdefensive.

Thethirdrequirement:Canweunderstandandappreciateeachother’sperspective?

Theprocessis:Explainandechoperspective—telltheotherwhatyouobserve,howitmakesyoufeel,andthelong-termconsequences.

Thefourthrequirement:Canweallcommittomakingimprovements?

Theprocessistwofold.

Changeonebehavioreach—agreethateachofyouisgoingtochangeonebehavior.

Trackit!—determinewaystomonitorprogress.

TheFormalNegotiationStage–ManagingtheProcessandOutcome

Thesecondcriticalstageofmultipartynegotiationsiswhathappenswhenthepartiesactuallynegotiatewitheachother.

Ourdiscussionincorporatesagreatdealofwhatweknowabouthowtostructurethedeliberationssoastoachieveaneffectiveandendorsedresult.

Thefollowingapproachesarelikelytoensureahigh-qualitydecision.

AppointanAppropriateChair

Multipartynegotiationscanbegreatlyfacilitatedbythepresenceofaneutralchairpersonwhocanimplementmanyofthetacticsdescribedhere.

Itisfrequentlythecasethatthechairisdrawnfromwithinthecircleofinterestedparties.

Ifthepersonisadvocatingaparticularposition,itmaybedifficulttobeseenasneutralwithrespecttofacilitatingtheprocess.

Box10.1providesaninventoryofconstructiveapproachestoactingasachairinmultipartynegotiations—summarizedinthefollowingbullets.

Explicitlydescribetheroleyouwilltakeaschair.

Beclearthatyouarethereonlytomanagetheprocessandthatthepartieswilldeterminetheoutcome.

Introducetheagendaorbuildonebasedontheidentifiedissues,concerns,andpriorities.

Makesurethepartieshaveanopportunitytodiscuss,modify,orchallengetheagendabeforeyoubegin.

Makelogisticalarrangementsthatwillhelpthenegotiationprocess.

Arrangeforaflipchart,whiteboard,orcomputerprojectortowritedownissuesandinterests.

Introducenecessarygroundrulesorletthepartiessuggestthem.

Howlongandhowfrequentlywilltheymeet?

Whatistheexpectedoutputorfinalproduct?

Willformalminutesbetaken?

Willtherebeformallydefinedbreaksorrecesses?

Wherewillnegotiationstakeplace?

Howandwhencanmembersconsultwiththeirconstituents?

Createorreviewdecisionstandardsandrules.

Findstandardsforwhatpartiesbelievewillbeafairorreasonablesettlement.

Assureindividualmembersthattheywillhaveanopportunitytomakeopeningstatementsorotherwaysofplacingtheirindividualconcernsandissuesonthetable.

Beclearthatoncepartiesarefamiliarwiththeissues,simultaneousdiscussionofseveralissuescantakeplace.

Thispermitstrade-offsamongissuesratherthanforcingacompromiseoneachindividualissue.

Beanactivegatekeeper.

Makesurepeoplehaveachancetospeak.

Askthemorevocalpeopletoholdbackandinvitethemoresilentpeopletomakecommentsandaddinput.

Listenforinterestsandcommonalities.

Encouragepeopletoidentifynotonlywhattheywantbutalsowhytheywantit.

Listenforprioritiesandconcerns.

Setasidetimeforinventingoptionsusingbrainstormingandotherdecision-makingtechniquestogenerateoptionsandevaluatethem.

Introduceexternalinformationthatwillhelpilluminatetheissuesandinterests.

Askforharddatatosupportassertions.

Summarizefrequently,particularlywhenstalled,confused,ortense.

Paraphrasingandsummarizingusuallybringsthepartiesbacktorealityandbackontask.

UseandRestructuretheAgenda

Anagendaiscriticaltocontrollingtheflowanddirectionofnegotiationsandisintroducedandcoordinatedeitherbythechairorbytheparties.

Agendasprovidelow-powergroupsavehicleforgettingtheirissuesheardandaddressed.

Howanagendaisbuilt,andwhobuildsit,willgreatlyimpactnegotiationflow.

Negotiatorsenteringamultipartynegotiationforwhichunacceptablepreemptiveagendahasbeencreatedshouldletothersknowtheyconsidertheagendaopentodiscussionorchange.

Inotherwords,makesurethatagendamodificationsarepartoftheagenda.

Thoughanagendaaddsstructuretoacomplexnegotiation,adrawbackisthatitmayartificiallypartitioninterrelatedissues—resultinginissuesbeingdiscussedseparately,lesseningthechancefortrade-offsandintegrativepotential.

Bewillingtochallengeandreconfigureanagendaifitallowstheemergenceofanintegrative,consensus-basedagreement.

EnsureaDiversityofInformationandPerspectives

Athirdwaytofacilitatethenegotiationistoensurethepartiesreceiveavarietyofperspectivesaboutthetaskandsourcesofinformation.

Thenatureofinformationchangesdependingonthetasksoitisdifficulttoprescribewhatinformationiscriticalandhowtoensurethatitisaddressed.

Thechairshouldensurethatinputisreceivedfromeveryoneandthatrelevantdataiscirculatedanddiscussed.

Therearefivekeystepsthatachaircanimplementtoensurehavinganeffective,amicabledisagreementonateam:

Collectyourthoughtsandcomposurebeforespeaking.

Avoidrespondingwithemotionratherthanreasonedarguments.

Trytounderstandtheotherperson’sposition.

UsetechniquesfromChapters7and9,includinglisteningskills,mirroring,androlereversaltounderstandtheother.

Trytothinkofwaysthatyoubothcanwin.

Considerhowimportantthisissueistoyou.

Isthisyourmostimportantissueinthenegotiation?

Canyouaffordtosacrificeallorpartofyourpreferredpositiononthisissueforgainselsewhere?

Rememberthatyouwillprobablyhavetoworktogetherwiththesepeopleinthefuture.

Evenwhenangryorfrustrated,donotusetacticsthatwillmakeyouregrettheconversationtomorrow

EnsureConsiderationofAlltheAvailableInformation.

Onewayistomonitordiscussionnorms.

Discussionnormsreflectthewaythepartiesengageinsharingandevaluatingintroducedinformation.

Althoughdesirable,partiesseldomconsiderinadvancewhatdiscussionnormstheyaregoingtofollow.

Researchongroupnormsshowsthereareseveralthingsthatcanundermineaneffectivediscussion.

Unwillingnesstotolerateconflictingpointsofviewandperspectives.

Partiesmaydislikeconflict,ortheyareafraidthatitwillleadtouncontrolledconflict,ortheyseeconflictasdestructivetogroupcohesiveness.

But,theabsenceofconflictcanalsoleadtodisastrousdecisions.

Sideconversations.

Whenasidediscussionyieldsauniqueperspectiveorcreativeinput,theycanbebeneficial.

However,whenpartiesmustremainunifiedandcollectivelyembracetheoutcome,sideconversationscanbedetrimental.

Nomeansfordefusinganemotionallychargeddiscussion.

Themorethepartiescareaboutaparticularissueandareinvestedinit,themorelikelyitisthatemotionswillcreepintothedialogue.

Vehiclesmustexisttoallowthepartiestoventemotionsproductively.

Comingtoameetingunprepared.

Meetingpreparationoftenmeansnopreparationorsimplypreparingyourownposition.

Attentiontotheothers’positionsortoassessingunderlyinginterestsandprioritiesrequiresthoroughpreparation.

Severalstrategiesmaybeusedtomanageeachofthesefourpotentiallydestructivediscussionnorms.

Thereareseveralgroupdecision-makingandbrainstormingtechniquesthatarefrequentlyusedtoachievethisobjective.

TheDelphiTechnique–amoderatorstructuresaninitialquestionnaireandsendsitouttoallparties,askingforinput.

Moderatorsummarizesinputandsendsitbacktotheparties.

Partiesevaluatethereport,makeinput,andreturntomoderator.

Overanumberofrounds,andmoderatorquestions,partiesexchangeagreatdealofinformationandsharedifferentperspectives.

Brainstorming–partiesareinstructedtodefineaproblemandthentogenerateasmanysolutionsaspossiblewithoutcriticizinganyofthem.

Box10.2offersalistofcriticalrulestobeusedinbrainstorming—summarizedbelow.

Nocriticismofideasisallowed.

Questionscanbeaskedonlyforclarificationofanidea.

Free-wheelingisaplus.

Goforquantity.

Combineandimpr