第7章　沟通国际商务

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Chapter7

Communication

Overview

Inthischapterweexaminetheprocessbywhichnegotiatorscommunicatetheirowninterests,positions,andgoals—andinturnmakesenseofthoseoftheotherpartyandofthenegotiationasawhole.Wefirstconsiderinsomedepthwhatiscommunicatedinanegotiation,followedbyanexplorationofhowpeoplecommunicateinnegotiation.Thechapterconcludeswithdiscussionsofhowtoimprovecommunicationinnegotiationandofspecialcommunicationconsiderationsatthecloseofnegotiations.

LearningObjectives

Explorewhatiscommunicatedinanegotiationandhowpeoplecommunicate.

Considerthewaysthatcommunicationmightbeimprovedinnegotiation.

Gainpracticaltoolsforhowtoimprovecommunicationprocessesinanynegotiation.

WhatisCommunicatedduringNegotiation?

Whenresearchersvideotapedexecutivesparticipatinginathree-personnegotiationinvolvingtwooilcompanies,70%oftheverbaltacticsusedwereintegrative.

Inaddition,buyersandsellerstendedtobehavereciprocally—whenonepartyusedanintegrativetactic,theothertendedtorespondwithanintegrativetactic.

Mostofthecommunicationduringnegotiationisnotaboutnegotiatorpreferences.

Althoughtheblendofintegrativeversusdistributivecontentvariesasafunctionoftheissuesbeingdiscussed

Andoftheexpectationpartieshavefortheirfuturerelationship

Itisalsoclearthatthecontentofcommunicationisonlypartlyresponsiblefornegotiationoutcomes.

Forexample,onepartymaychoosenottocommunicatecertainthings,sotheircounterpartmaybeunawarewhysomeoutcomesoccur.

Inthefollowingsections,wediscussfivecategoriesofcommunicationthattakeplaceduringnegotiations—summarizedinTable7.1.

Wethenconsiderthequestionofwhethermorecommunicationisalwaysbetterthanlesscommunication.

Offers,Counteroffers,andMotives

Anegotiator’spreferencesarecommunicatedduringanegotiation–theycanhaveapowerfulinfluenceontheactionsoftheotherpartyandonoutcomes.

Inadditiontoconveyingoffersandpreferences,communicationbetweennegotiatorsmayalsoconveyemotionsexperiencedinrelationtotheexchangeofpositionsandoffers.

Acommunicativeframeworkfornegotiationisbasedontheassumptionsthat:

Thecommunicationofoffersisadynamicprocess(offerschangeorshiftovertime);

Theofferprocessisinteractive(bargainersinfluenceeachother);

Variousinternalandexternalfactors(timelimitations,reciprocitynorms,alternatives,constituencypressures)drivetheinteractionandmotivateabargainertochangehisorheroffer.

Inotherwords,theoffer-counterofferprocessisdynamic,interactive,andsubjecttosituationalandenvironmentalconstraints.

Thisprocessconstantlyrevisestheparametersofthenegotiation,eventuallynarrowingthebargainingrangeandguidingthediscussiontowardasettlementpoint.

InformationaboutAlternatives

TheexistenceofaBATNAchangesseveralthingsinanegotiation:

ComparedtonegotiatorswithoutattractiveBATNAs,negotiatorswithattractiveBATNAssethigherreservationpricesforthemselvesthantheircounterpartsdo;

NegotiatorswhosecounterpartshadattractiveBATNAssetlowerreservationpointsforthemselves;and

WhenbothpartieswereawareoftheattractiveBATNAthatoneofthenegotiatorshad,thatnegotiatorreceivedamorepositivenegotiationoutcome.

Thus,negotiatorswithanattractiveBATNAshouldtelltheotherpartyiftheyexpecttoreceiveitsfullbenefits—butstyleandtonematter.

Politely(evensubtly)makingtheotherpartyawareofyourgoodalternativecanprovideleveragewithoutalienatingtheotherparty.

WavingastrongBATNAintheother’sfacemaybeconstruedasaggressiveandthreatening.

InformationaboutOutcomes

Onestudyfoundthatwinnersandlosersevaluatetheirownoutcomesequallywhentheydidnotknowhowwelltheotherpartyhaddone,butiftheyfoundouttheothernegotiatorhaddonebetter,orwaspleasedwiththeiroutcome,thennegotiatorsfeltlesspositiveabouttheirownoutcome.

Anotherstudysuggeststhatevenwhennegotiatorslearntheotherpartydidrelativelypoorly,theyarelesssatisfiedwiththeoutcomethanwhentheyhavenocomparisoninformation.

Takentogether,thesefindingssuggestthatnegotiatorsshouldbecautiousaboutsharingtheiroutcomesoreventheirpositivereactionstooutcomeswiththeotherparty,especiallyiftheyaregoingtonegotiatewiththatpartyagaininthefuture.

SocialAccounts

Communicationduringnegotiationconsistsof“socialaccounts,”whichareexplanationsmadetotheotherparty,especiallywhennegotiatorsneedtojustifybadnews.

Threetypesofexplanationsareimportant:

Explanationsofmitigatingcircumstances,wherenegotiatorssuggestthattheyhadnochoiceintakingthepositionstheydid;

Explanationsofexoneratingcircumstances,wherenegotiatorsexplaintheirpositionsfromabroaderperspective,suggestingthatwhiletheircurrentpositionmayappearnegative,itderivesfrompositivemotives;and

Reframingexplanations,whereoutcomescanbeexplainedbychangingthecontext.

Negotiatorswhousemultipleexplanationsaremorelikelytohavebetteroutcomes.

Thenegativeeffectsofpooroutcomescanbealleviatedbycommunicatingexplanationsforthem.

CommunicationaboutProcess

Somecommunicationisaboutthenegotiationprocessitself—howwelltheprocessisgoingorwhatproceduresmightbeadoptedtoimprovethesituation.

Somecommunicationtakestheformofsmalltalk,thoughsomecommunicationaboutprocessiscritical,aswhenconflictintensifiesandhostilitiesmayovertaketheprogress.

Onestrategyiscallingattentiontocontentiousactionsandlabelingitascounterproductive.

Moregenerally,negotiatorsshouldresistreciprocatingcontentiouscommunication.

Sometimesabreakinthesubstantiveconversationandattentiontotheprocessispreciselywhat’sneeded.

Weconcludethissectiononwhatiscommunicationinnegotiationwiththreekeyquestions.

AreNegotiatorsConsistentorAdaptive?

Effectivenegotiatorsareabletoadapttheirstrategyandstyletoparticularbargainingsituations—butnegotiatorsaremorelikelytobeconsistentintheirstrategiesthantovarytheirapproach.

Negotiatorsreactonlytoasmallproportionoftheavailablecuescommunicatedanduseonlyasmallproportionofpossibleresponses.

Thisproportionbecomessmallerasthenegotiationproceeds.

Whenitcomestomakingchoicesaboutcommunication,manynegotiatorspreferstickingwiththefamiliarratherthanventuringintoimprovisation.

DoesItMatterWhatIsSaidEarlyintheNegotiation?

Arelativelysmallamountofcommunicationinanegotiationencountercanhavelargeeffectsontheoutcomesthatresult.

Researchindicatesthatcommunicationduringthefirstfiveminuteshasalargeeffectonthenegotiatedagreementsthepartieseventuallyreach.

Controlling“thefloor”earlyinthenegotiationhelps,butit’salsoimportanttoavoiddominatingtheearlyconversationwithemotionalorhyperboliccommunication.

Thereisevidencethatjointgainsareinfluencedbywhathappensearlyon.

Onestudyfoundgreaterjointgainswhennegotiatorsmovebeyondposturingtoexchanginginformationaboutissuesandprioritiesbeforethenegotiationistoofaralong.

IsMoreInformationAlwaysBetter?

Researchsuggeststhatreceivingtoomuchinformationduringnegotiationmaybedetrimentaltonegotiators;sometimescalledtheinformation-is-weaknesseffect.

Negotiatorswhoknowthecompletepreferencesofbothpartiesmayhavemoredifficultydeterminingfairoutcomesthannegotiatorswhodonothavethisinformation.

Onestudyfoundthattheamountofinformationexchangeddidnotimprovetheoverallaccuracyoftheparties’perceptionsofeachother’spreferences.

Anotherfoundthathavinginformationaboutanopponentthatisnotrelevanttothetaskathandimpairsdeal-makingasitinterfereswiththeexchangeofinformation.

Thus,theinfluenceoftheexchangeofaccurateinformationdoesnotautomaticallyleadtobetterunderstandingoftheotherparty’spreferencesortobetternegotiationoutcomes.

HowPeopleCommunicateinNegotiation

Whileitmayseemobviousthathownegotiatorscommunicateisasimportantaswhattheyhavetosay,researchhasexamineddifferentaspectsofhowpeoplecommunicateinnegotiation.

Hereweaddressthreeaspectsrelatedtothe“how”ofcommunication:

Thecharacteristicsoflanguagethatcommunicatorsuse

Theuseofnonverbalcommunicationinnegotiation

Andtheselectionofacommunicationchannelforsendingandreceivingmessages

CharacteristicsofLanguage

Languageoperatesattwolevels:thelogicallevel(forproposalsoroffers)andthepragmaticlevel(semantics,syntax,andstyle).

Themeaningconveyedbyapropositionorstatementisacombinationofonelogical,surfacemessageandseveralpragmatic(hintedorinferred)messages.

Toillustrate,considerthreats.

Weoftenreactnotonlytothesubstanceofathreatbutalsotoitsunspokenmessage.

Box7.1illustrateshowthreatswhichseemstraightforwardareactuallycomplexandnuancedwhenanalyzedintermsofthespecificelementsoflanguageusedwithinthem.(summarizedinfollowingbullets)

Theuseofpolarizedlanguage,wherenegotiatorsusepositivewordswhenspeakingoftheirownpositions(generous,reasonable,oreven-handed)andnegativewordswhenreferringtotheotherparty’sposition(tight-fisted,unreasonable,orheavy-handed).

Theconveyanceofverbalimmediacy,eitherhighandintendedtoengageorcompeltheotherparty(“OK,hereisthedeal”or“Itakegreatcareto…”)orlowandintendedtocreateasenseofdistanceoraloofness(“Well,thereitis”or“Oneshouldtakegreatcareto…”)

Thedegreeoflanguageintensity,wherehighintensityconveysstrongfeelings(statementsofaffirmationorfrequentuseofprofanity)andlowintensityconveysweakfeelings.

Thedegreeoflexicaldiversity,wherehighlevelsdenotecomfortandcompetenceandlowlevelsdenotediscomfort,anxiety,orinexperience.

Theextentofahigh-powerlanguagestyle,withlowpowerdenotedbytheuseofverbalhedges,hesitations,orsubordinationandhighpowerdenotedbyverbaldominance,clarity,firmnessofexpression,andself-assurance.

Overall,threatsaremorecredibleandmorecompellingiftheyincorporatenegativelypolarizeddescriptionsoftheotherpartyandtheirposition,highimmediacy,highintensity,highlexicaldiversity,andadistinctivelyhigh-powerstyle.

Clearly,itisnotjustaboutwhatisthreatenedbutalsoabouthowthethreatisconveyed.

Nomattertheintent,howpartiescommunicateinnegotiationwouldseemtodependonthespeaker’sabilitytoencodethoughtsproperly,aswellasonthelistener’sabilitytounderstandanddecodetheintendedmessage(s).

Negotiators’useofidiomsorcolloquialismsisoftenproblematic,especiallyincross-culturalnegotiations.

Anegotiator’schoiceofwordsmaynotonlysignalapositionbutalsoshapeandpredicttheresultingconversation.

Statementscommunicatinginterestsinbothissuesandtherelationshipachievedbetter,moreintegrativesolutions.

Linguisticpatternsearlyinthenegotiationdefineissuesinwaysthatmayhelpachieveintegrativepossibilitieslateron.

UseofNonverbalCommunication

Muchofwhatiscommunicatedistransmittednonverballythroughfacialexpressions,bodylanguage,headmovements,andtoneofvoice.

Attendingbehaviorslettheotherknowthatyouarelisteningandpreparetheotherpartytoreceiveyourmessage.Therearethreeimportantattendingbehaviors:

MakeEyeContact

Whenpersuadingsomeone,itisimportanttomakeeyecontactwhendeliveringthemostimportantpartofthemessage.

Maintaineyecontactwhenreceivingcommunicationaswellaswhenspeaking.

AdjustBodyPosition

Toensurethatothersknowyouareattentivetothem,holdyourbodyerect,leanslightlyforward,andfacetheotherpersondirectly.

Incontrast,crossingarms,bowingthehead,furrowingthebrow,andsqueezingeyebrowstogetherallsignalstrongrejectionordisapprovalofthemessage.

NonverballyEncourageorDiscourageWhattheOtherSays

Briefeyecontact,asmile,oranodoftheheadprovideencouragingcues.

Afrown,scowl,ashakeofthehead,oragrabatyourchestinmockpainallsignaldisapprovaloftheother’smessage.

C. SelectionofaCommunicationChannel

Communicationisexperienceddifferentlywhenitoccursthroughdifferentchannels.

Peoplenegotiatethroughavarietyofcommunicationmedia:overthetelephone,inwriting,andincreasinglythroughsuchelectronicchannelsasemailandteleconferencingsystems,andeventextmessaging.

Sometimesreferredtoasvirtualnegotiationor“e-negotiation.”

Theuseofparticularchannelsshapesbothperceptionsandnorms.

Channelvariationshavepotentiallyimportanteffectsonnegotiationprocessesandoutcomes.

Thekeyvariationdistinguishingonecommunicationchannelfromanotherissocialbandwidth—theabilityofachanneltocarryandconveysubtlesocialandrelationalcuesfromsendertoreceiverthatgobeyondtheliteraltextofthemessage.

Phonenegotiationpreservestheabilitytotransmitsocialcuresthroughinflectionortoneofvoicebutforfeitstheabilitytocommunicateusingfacialexpressionsorbodylanguage.

Writtencommunicationonlyhasthewordsonpaper,butthechoiceofwordsandthearrangementconveystone,formality,andemotion.

Thereareimportantdistinctionsbetweenemailandotherformsofwrittencommunication.

Manypeopletreatemailashighlyinformalandmayincorporateemoticons.

Thelackofsocialcueslowerscommunicatorinhibitionandleadstomoreaggressivecommunicationbehavior.

Thismaynotbethecasewhenusedfornegotiation,wherethepartiesareknowntoeachother.

Thereisevidencethatnegotiationthroughwrittenchannelsismorelikelytoendinimpassethannegotiationthatoccursface-to-faceorbyphone.

Developingrapportandsharinginformationareaspectsofface-to-facecommunication,whichmayalsoallowconveyanceoftoughness.

Thehardbargainercancommunicationtheir“tough”message,inturnlimitingtheotherparty’saspirationsandtriggeringconcessions.

Usingemailcanmaskorreducepowerdifferencesbetweennegotiators.

Thereisalsoevidencethate-mailnegotiatorsreachagreementsthataremoreequalthanface-to-facenegotiators.

Negotiatorsusinge-mailneedtoworkharderatbuildingpersonalrapportwiththeotherpartyiftheyaretoovercomelimitationsofthechannelthatwouldotherwiseinhibitoptimalagreementsorfuelimpasse.

Emailnegotiationslackschmoozing,animportantavenueforbuildingrapportandestablishingtrust.

Schmoozingonthephonepriortoemailnegotiationsmayhelpachievebetteroutcomes.

Anotherwayistouse“linguisticmimicry”byimitatingtheotherparty’suseoflanguage,metaphors,jargon,andevenemoticons.

Textmessaginghasbecomesocommonthatitmeritsseparateattentionasacommunicationchannelinnegotiation.

Emailhasa“slow-tempo”whiletextingisa“fast-tempo”mediummorecloselyapproximatingoralcommunication.

Sellersdobetterwithcomplexargumentsinthe“quick”mediumbutnotinthe“slow”medium.

Insummary,negotiationsusingtechnology-mediatedchannelscreateopportunitiesbutalsoposechallengestonegotiation.SeeBox7.2(10RulesforVirtualNegotiation)foralistofadditionalwaystomaximizeeffectivenesswhennegotiationsoccurinvirtualenvironments.(summarizedinfollowingbullets)

Takestepstocreateaface-to-facerelationshipbeforenegotiation,orearlyon,sothereisafaceorvoicebehindemailcommunications.

Beexplicitaboutthenormativeprocesstobefollowedduringthenegotiation.

Ifothersarepresentinavirtualnegotiation,makesureeveryoneknowswhoisthereandwhy.

Pickthechannelthatismosteffectiveatgettingalltheinformationanddetailonthetabletobefullyconsideredbybothsides.

Avoid“flaming”bylabelingemotionsoothersknowwhatitisandwhat’sbehindit.

Formalturn-takingisnotstrictlynecessary,buttrytosynchronizeoffersandcounter-offers.

Checkoutassumptionsaslessface-to-facecontactmeanslessinformationabouttheotherpartyandgreaterchancethatinferenceswillgetyouintrouble,soaskquestions.

Inmanyvirtualnegotiations,everythingiscommunicatedinwriting,sobecarefulnottomakeunwisecommitmentsthatcanbeusedagainstyou—anddonottakeundueadvantageoftheotherpartyinthesameway.

Unethicaltacticsmaybeeasiertouseinvirtualnegotiation—resistthetemptationastheconsequencesarejustassevere,ifnotmoreso.

Notallstylesworkequallywellinallsettingssoworktodevelopapersonalnegotiationstylethatisagoodfitwiththecommunicationchannelyouareusing.

HowtoImproveCommunicationinNegotiation

Failuresanddistortionsinperception,cognition,andcommunicationaretheparamountcontributorstobreakdownsandfailuresinnegotiation.

Justaswecanevaluatethequalityofadeal,wecanevaluatethequalityofcommunication—itsefficiencyandeffectiveness—thatoccurs.

Threemaintechniquesareavailableforimprovingcommunicationinnegotiation:

Theuseofquestions

Listening

Androlereversal

TheUseofQuestions

Askinggoodquestionsenablesnegotiatorstosecureagreatdealofinformationabouttheotherparty’sposition,supportingarguments,andneeds.

Questionscouldbedividedintotwobasiccategories:

Manageable

Unmanageable

SeeTable7.2andsummarizedinthebulletsbelow.

ManageableQuestionsinclude

Open-endedquestions—onesapersoncannotanswerwithasimpleyesorno—who,what,when,where,andwhyquestions.

Whydoyoutakethatpositioninthesedeliberations?

Openquestions—invitetheother’sthinking

Whatdoyouthinkofourproposal?

Leadingquestions—pointtowardananswer

Don’tyouthinkourproposalisafairandreasonableoffer?

Coolquestions—lowemotionality

Whatistheadditionalratethatwewillhavetopayifyoumaketheimprovementontheproperty?

Plannedquestions—partofanoveralllogicalsequenceofquestionsdevelopedinadvance

Afteryoumaketheimprovementstotheproperty,whencanweexpecttotakeoccupancy?

Treatquestions—flattertheopponentatthesametimeasyouaskforinformation

Canyouprovideuswithsomeofyourexcellentinsightonthisproblem?

Windowquestions—aidinlookingintotheotherperson’smind

Canyoutellushowyoucametothatconclusion?

Directivequestions—focusonaspecificpoint

Howmuchistherentalratepersquarefootwiththeseimprovements?

Gaugingquestions—ascertainhowtheotherpersonfeels

Howdoyoufeelaboutourproposal?

UnmanageableQuestions

Close-outquestions—forcetheotherpartyintoseeingthingsyourway

Youwouldn’ttrytotakeadvantageofushere,wouldyou?

Loadedquestions—puttheotherpartyonthespot,regardlessoftheanswer

Doyoumeantotellmethatthesearetheonlytermsthatyouwillaccept?

Heatedquestions—highemotionality,triggeremotionalresponses

Don’tyouthinkwe’vespentenoughtimediscussingthisridiculousproposalofyours?

Impulsequestions—occur“onthespurofthemoment,”withoutplanning,andtendtogetconversationoffthetrack

Aslongaswe’rediscussingthis,whatdoyouthinkweoughttotellothergroupswhohavemadesimilardemandsonus?

Trickquestions—appeartorequireafrankanswerbutreallyare“loaded”intheirmeaning

Whatareyougoingtodo—giveintoourdemandsortakethistoarbitration?

Reflectivetrickquestions—reflecttheotherintoagreeingwithyourpointofview

Here’showIseethesituation—don’tyouagree?

Manageablequestionscauseattention

orpreparetheotherperson’sthinkingforfurtherquestions(“MayIaskyouaquestion?”),

getinformation(“Howmuchwillthiscost?”),

andgeneratethoughts(“Doyouhaveanysuggestionsforimprovingthis?”)

Unmanageablequestionscausedifficulty

Giveinformation(“Didn’tyouknowthatwecouldn’taffordthis?”)

Andbringdiscussiontoafalseconclusion(“Don’tyouthinkwe’vetalkedaboutthisenough?”)

Unmanageablequestionsaremorelikelytoelicitdefensivenessandangerfromtheotherparty.

Negotiatorscanalsousequestionstomanagedifficultorstallednegotiations.

Questionscanbeusedtacticallytopryorleveranegotiationoutofabreakdownoranapparentdeadend.

Table7.3offersseveraltoughsituationsandpossiblequestionsusedtodealwiththem—summarizedinbulletsbelow.

“Takeitorleaveit”ultimatums

“Ifwecancomeupwithamoreattractivealternativethanthat,wouldyoustillwantmeto‘takeorleave’youroffer?

“DoIhavetodecidenow,ordoIhavesometimetothinkaboutit?”

“Areyoufeelingpressuretobringthenegotiationtoaclose?”

Pressuretorespondtoanunreasonabledeadline

“Whycan’twenegotiateaboutthisdeadline?”

“Ifyou’reunderpressuretomeetthisdeadline,whatcanIdotohelpremovesomeofthatpressure?”

“What’smagicalaboutthisafternoon?Whataboutfirstthinginthemorning?”

Highballorlowballtactics

“What’syourreasoningbehindthisposition?”

“WhatwouldyouthinkIseeasafairoffer?”

“Whatstandardsdoyouthinkthefinalresolutionshouldmeet?”

Animpasse

“Whatelsecaneitherofusdotoclosethegapbetweenourpositions?”

“Specifically,whatconcessiondoyouneedfrommetobringthistoacloserightnow?”

“Ifitwerealreadysixweeksfromnowandwewerelookingbackatthisnegotiation,whatmightwewishwehadbroughttothetable?”

Indecisionbetweenacceptingandrejectingaproposal

“What’syourbestalternativetoacceptingmyofferrightnow?”

“Ifyourejectthisoffer,whatwilltakeitsplacethat’sbetterthanwhatyouknowyou’llreceivefromme?”

“Howcanyoubesurethatyouwillgetabetterdealelsewhere?”

Aquestionaboutwhethertheofferyoujustmadeisthesameasthatofferedtoothers

“Whatdoyouseeasafairoffer,andgiventhat,whatdoyouthinkofmycurrentoffertoyou?”

“DoyoubelievethatIthinkit’sinmybestinteresttobeunfairtoyou?”

“Doyoubelievethatpeoplecanbetreateddifferently,butstillallbetreatedfairly?”

Attemptstopressure,control,ormanipulate

“Shouldn’twebothwalkawayfromthisnegotiationfeelingsatisfied?”

“Howwouldyoufeelifourroleswerereversed,andyouwerefeelingthepressureI’mfeelingrightnow?”

“Areyouexperiencingoutsidepressurestoconcludethesenegotiations?”

Listening

Activelisteningandreflectingaretermscommonlyusedinthehelpingprofessionssuchascounselingandtherapy.Therearethreemajorformsoflistening.

Passivelisteninginvolvesreceivingthemessagewhileprovidingnofeedbacktothesenderabouttheaccuracyorcompletenessofreception.

Sometimesthisisenoughtokeepacommunicatorsendinginformation.

Anegotiatorwhosecounterpartistalkativemayfindthisisthebeststrategy—sitandlistenwhiletheothereventuallyworksinto,oroutof,apositionontheirown.

Acknowledgmentisslightlymoreactivethanpassivelistening.

Whenacknowledgingthemessage,receiversoccasionallynodtheirheads,maintaineyecontact,orinterjectresponseslike“Isee”.

Theseresponsesoftenkeepcommunicatorssendingmessages,butasendermaymisinterpretthemasthereceiver’sagreementwiththeirposition.

Activelisteningisthethirdform.

Whenreceiversareactivelylistening,theyrestateorparaphrasethesender’smessageintheirownlanguage.Examplesinclude:

SENDER:Idon’tknowhowIamgoingtountanglethismessyproblem.

RECEIVER:You’rereallystumpedonhowtosolvethisone.

SENDER:Please,don’taskmeaboutthatnow.

RECEIVER:Soundslikeyou’reawfullybusyrightnow.

SENDER:Ithoughtthemeetingtodayaccomplishednothing.

RECEIVER:Youwereverydisappointedwithoursession.

Thevalueofactivelisteningmayseemlessobviousinnegotiationasthelistenernormallyhasasetpositionandmayfeelstronglyabouttheissues.

Yet,activelisteningisaskillthatencouragesotherstospeakmorefullyabouttheirfeelings,priorities,framesofreference,and,byextension,thepositionstheyaretaking.

Whentheotherpartydoesso,negotiatorswillbetterunderstandtheother’sposition;thefactorsandinformationthatsupportit;andthewaysthepositioncanbecompromised,reconciled,ornegotiatedinaccordancewiththeirownpreferencesandpriorities.

RoleReversal

Activelisteningisasomewhatpassiveprocess,yetrolereversaltechniquesallownegotiatorstounderstandmorecompletelytheotherparty’spositionbyactivelyarguingthesepositionsuntiltheotherpartyisconvincedtheyareunderstood.

Studiesexaminingtheimpactandsuccessoftherole-reversaltechniquespointtotwoimplicationsfornegotiators.

First,thepartyattemptingtherolereversalmaycometoagreaterunderstandingoftheotherparty’sposition,whichcaninturnleadtoconvergencebetweennegotiators’positions.

Second,whilerolereversalcanproducethesechangeswhentheparties’positionsarefundamentallycompatiblewitheachothertobeginwith,thetechniquemayendupsharpeningperceptionsofdifferencesifthepositionsarefundamentallyincompatible.

Insum,rolereversalcanbemostusefulduringthepreparationstageofnegotiationorduringateamcaucuswhenthingsarenotgoingwell.

SpecialCommunicationConsiderationsattheCloseofNegotiations

Asnegotiationsmovetowardaclosewithagreementin