Discourse-Analysis-语篇分析课件

DiscourseAnalysis1:Introduction2:BasicissuesinDA3:Texture(Halliday’sTheory)4:Texture(Beaugrande&Dressler’sTheory)5:Cohesionandcoherence6:Thematicandinformationstructure7:TenseandAspect8:Discoursestructure9:Conversationanalysis10:Discourseandcontext11:DAinapplication11:Introduction--Ageneralunderstanding

When?Cameintobeingsince1950s;asanindependentdisciplinesince1970s.Whattostudy?Languageunitslargerthansentences,includingbothwrittenandspokenlanguage.21:Introduction—developmentofDA1.TextLinguisticsTextlinguistics(ordiscourselinguistics)developedonthebasisofsyntax(句法学).Soitisalsocalledtextgrammar(篇章语法)ordiscourseanalysis（语篇分析，话语分析）.

31:Introduction—developmentofDA2.Stages(1)ThePreparatoryStage(1950s):Harris

(2)TheDevelopmentalStage(orTheEmergenceofDiscourseAnalysisAsANewDiscipline)(1970s):Halliday(3)TheMaturedStage(1980s):G.Yule,T.Givon,S.Thompson,J.S.Petofi,W.Chafe,W.Mann,R.Longacre,etc.inAmerica;G.Brown,VanDijk,M.Coulthard,J.Sinclair,E.Ventola,etc.inwesternEurope;M.A.K.Halliday,R.Hasan,J.Martin,C,Matthiessen,etc.inAustalia;M.BakhtininRussia;廖秋忠,陈平,胡壮麟,沈家煊,顾曰国,任绍曾,申丹，黄国文,张德禄,朱永生等。41:Introduction—definition?1.TheCommon-SenseDefinitions2.TheTheoreticalDefinitions:formalist:discourseusaparticularunitoflanguage(abovethesentence)functionalist:discourseisdefinedasaparticularfocusonlanguageuse.51:Introduction—definition?Formalist：LanguageabovethesentenceFunctionalist:LanguageuseDiscourse:utterances61:Introduction—characteristicsdiscoursemustbegrammaticallycorrectandsemanticallycoherent.

discourseshouldhaveanargumentativestructureandlogicalstructure

itisgenerallyheldthattheboundaryofdiscourseanalysisshouldexceedthelimitofasimplesentence

HallidayandHasan(1976)proposethatdiscourseisasemanticunit,notaunitofform.

7Introduction:Text&DiscourseDifferentdefinitionstotext/discourse:1.Halliday&Hasan(1976),Quirketal.(1985):textforbothwrittenandspokenlanguage2.Coulthard(1985):textforwritten,discourseforspoken3.Leechetal.(1985):discourseforboth4.Widdowson(1975):discourseforwritten81:Introduction—TheTaskofDAFromthemacro-perspective:Howdoeslanguageuseinfluencebeliefsandinteraction,orviceversa?Howdoaspectsofinteractioninfluencehowpeoplespeak?Howdobeliefscontrollanguageuseandinteraction？Whataretherelationshipsamonglanguageuse,beliefsandinteraction?91:Introduction—TheTaskofDAFromthemicro-perspective:(a)thesemanticlinksbetweensentences,(b)textualcohesionandcoherence,(c)conversationalprinciples,(d)therelationshipbetweendiscourseandcontext,(e)therelationshipbetweenthediscoursesemanticstructureandideology,(f)therelationshipbetweendiscourseandthinkingpatterns,etc.101:Introduction—

VarietiesofApproachesTowards

DAInsociology

InphilosophyIncognitivepsychology

Inliterature

Inlinguistics

Incriticallinguisticstudy

Incognitivelinguistics

112:BasicissuesinDA1.Cohesion2.Coherence3.Sentence,sentencegroupandtext4.Patternsofsententialrelationships5.Discoursestructure6.DAlevels122:BasicissuesinDACohesion:Aimportantfeatureoftexturerealizedatthesurfacestructureofatext.Toberealizedbyusinggrammaticaldevices(e.g.reference,substitutionandellipses,etc.)andlexicaldevices(e.g.reiterationandcollocation,etc.)Atangiblenetworkofthetext132:BasicissuesinDACoherence:Thesemanticrelationinatext;lyinginnotonthesurfacebutthedeeplevelofthetext;realizedbylogicalreasoning;anintangiblenetworkofthetext142:BasicissuesinDACohesion:A:Whoseisthispen?B:Oh,it’stheoneIlost.Coherence:A:That’sthetelephone.B:I’minthebath.A:O.K.152:BasicissuesinDASentence,sentencegroupandtextSentence:thelargestgrammaticalunitSG:composedby2ormoresentencesClause:??Clausecomplex162:BasicissuesinDASententialrelationships:Thestructuralandsemanticrelationsbetweensentencesinacoherenttext.Clausecomplexes:Asentencecanbeinterpretedasaclausecomplex:aHeadclausetogetherwithotherclausesthatmodifyit.Theclausecomplexwillbetheonlygrammaticalunitwhichweshallrecognizeabovetheclause.(Halliday,1994)172:BasicissuesinDABasictypesofclausecomplexes18(i)paratactic(ii)hypotactic(1)Expansion(a)elaborationJohndidn’twait;1heranaway.=2Johnranaway,αwhichsurprisedeveryone=β(b)extensionJohnranaway,1andFredstayedbehind.+2Johnranaway,αwhereasFredstayedbehind.+β(c)enhancementJohnwasscared,1soheranaway.×2Johnranaway,αbecausehewasscared×β(2)Projection(a)locutionJohnsaid:1‘I’mrunningaway’“2Johnsaidαhewasrunningaway.“β(b)ideaJohnthoughttohimself:1‘I’llrunaway’‘2Johnthoughtαhewouldrunaway.‘β192:BasicissuesinDATwosystemicdimensions:1.Thesystemofinterdependency:parataxisandhypotaxis2.Thelogico-semanticsystem:expansionandprojection202:BasicissuesinDADiscoursestructure“Thisnoiseisgivingmeaheadache.”“Me,too!”*“It’sgoingtorainsoon.”“Me,too!”212:BasicissuesinDADiscoursestructure—linearization（线性表现）Icame.Isaw.Iconquered.(JuliusCaesar)Thepolicemanhelduphishand.Thecarstopped.222:BasicissuesinDADiscoursestructure—basicrelationalstructures（基本关系结构）（Quirk,1985)1.generalandparticular:Workinginwoodcallsforgreatmanualskill.Theordinarysawitselfisnoteasytohandle.Theordinaryhouseholdsawisnoteasytouse.Infact,anysortofwoodworkcallsforgreatmanualskill.Manyoftheaudiencebecameopenlyhostile.Forexamplemyunclewrotealettertothemanagementnextday.232:BasicissuesinDA2.progression（递进）（以时间先后、推理起结为序）WangChinggetsupathalfpastsix.Hedresses,washesandgoesouttodomorningexercises.Thenhehasbreakfast.HemustbeBob’sbrother.Irememberhe’sgotabigrednose.First,boilthericeinwell-saltedwater;drainitimmediately.Next,…242:BasicissuesinDALevelsofDA1.phonologicallevelSuprasegmentalfeatures:stress,duration,quantity,quality,pitch,juncture,transition,pause,intonation,rhythmAds/poems:alliteration,assonance,consonance,reverserhyme,pararhyme,rhymePhonologicaldeviation252:BasicissuesinDA2.graphologicallevelLayout,shape,presentation,arrangementofsentences,etc.3.lexical/semanticlevelWord-formation,wordcomplexity,wordstylisticfeatures,wordsemanticfeatures,etc.262:BasicissuesinDA4.syntacticlevelSentencetype,sentencecomplexity,sentencearrangementandthedistributionandgivenandnewinformation,etc.5.textuallevelTextstructureetc.6.leveloftextualorientationTherelationshipsamongthetime,placeandparticipantsofanarrativeeven,factuality,etc.273:Texture

Textureisalsocalledtextuality.Tobeatext,itmusthavetexture.Whatdoestexturemean?Howcanwedeterminewhetheratexthastextureornot?283:Texture

TheStudyofTextureHalliday’sTheoryHalliday(1976:2)said:“Atexthastexture(语篇特征)andthisiswhatdistinguishesitfromsomethingthatisnotatext…Thetextureisprovidedbythecohesiverelation.”Forexample:Washandcoresixcookingapples.Putthemintoafireproofdish.AccordingtoHalliday,thecohesiverelationsinclude:reference,substitution,ellipsisandlexicalrelationship.293:Texture

1.ReferenceReferenceisdividedintoendophoricreferenceandexophoricreference.Exphoricreferenceisalsocalledsituationalreference.Endophoricreferenceisalsocalledtextualreference.AccordingtoHalliday,onlyendophoricreferenceiscohesive.Exphoricreferencecontributestothecreationoftext,butitdoesnotcontributetothecohesionofthetext,becauseexphoricreferencelinksthelanguagewiththecontextofsituation.Endophoricreferenceincludesthreetypes:personal,demonstrative,andcomparative.303:Texture

PersonalReferencereferencemadebypersonalpronouns;including:I,me,my,mine,you,your,yours,he,him,his,she,her,hers,we,us,our,ours,they,them,their,theirs,etc.

LimerickTherewasayoungladyofNiger,Whosmiledassherodeonatiger.TheyreturnedfromtherideWiththeladyinsideAndthesmileonthefaceofthetiger.Heresheandtheyareanaphoric,‘pointing’respectivelytoayounglady,andayoungladyandatiger.Ananaphoricrelationshipofthiskindcreatescohesion.Presentedwiththesewords,thelistenerhastolookbackforitsinterpretation.Sothesewordshavetheeffectoflinkingthetwosentencesintoacohesiveunity.313:TextureDemonstrativeReferencereferencemadebythefollowingwordssuchasthe,this,that,these,those,here,there,etc.,whichexpressesthedegreeofproximity.E.g.Inotherwords,economicalwritingisefficientandaestheticallysatisfying.Whileitmakesamaximumdemandontheenergyandpatienceofreaders,itreturnstothemamaximumofsharplycompressedmeaning.Youshouldacceptthisasyourbasicresponsibilityasawriter:thatyouinflictnounnecessarywordsonyourreaders–justasadentistinflictsnounnecessarypain,alawyernounnecessaryrisk.Herethisiscataphoric,‘pointing’tothelatterpartofthesentence.323:TextureComparativeReferencereferencemadebythefollowingwordssuchassame,different,identical,similar,equal,equally,more,less,better,etc.,whichexpressesIDENTITYorSIMILARITY.

AReasonableAfflictionMattewPriorOnhisdeath-bedpoorLubinlies;Hisspouseisindespair;Withfrequentsobsandmutualcries;Theybothexpresstheircare.“Adifferentcause,”saysParsonSly,“Thesameeffectmaygive:PoorLubinfearsthathemaydie;Hiswife,thathemaylive”.Heredifferentiscataphoric,‘pointing’forward,andsameisanaphoric,‘pointing’towhathasbeensaidinthefirstpartofthispoem.333:Texture2.EllipsisEllipsismeanssomethingleftunsaid.Therearethreetypesofellipsis:nominalellipsis,verbalellipsisandclausalellipsis.343:TextureNominalEllipsisEllipsiswithinthenominalgroup.ThenominalgroupiscomposedofaHeadwiththeotherelements:Deictic,Numerative,Epithet,Classifier,andQualifier.TheDeicticisnormallyadeterminersuchasthose,these,etc.,

theNumerativeanumeralorotherquantifiersuchastwo,four,etc.,theEpithetanadjectivesuchasfast,etc.,theClassifieranounoranadjectivesuchastrainintrainset,electric,etc.ThefunctionoftheHead,whichisalwaysfilled,isnormallyservedbythecommonnoun,propernounorpronounexpressingthething.Undercertaincircumstances,thecommonnounmaybeomittedandthefunctionoftheHeadistakenonbyoneoftheseotherelements.E.g.a.Herearemytwowhitesilkscarves.b.Whereareyours?Asforbyours(Deictic)isHead,andthepresupposedelementsincludenotonlyscarves(Thing)butalsosilk(Classifier),white(Epithet)andpossiblytwo(Numerative).353:TextureVerbalEllipsisEllipsiswithintheverbalgroup.Forexample:a.Haveyoubeenplayingfootball?–Yes,Ihave.b.Whathaveyoubeendoing?–Playingfootball.Thetwoverbalgroupsintheanswers,havein(a)andplayingin(b)arebothinstancesofverbalellipsis.363:TextureClausalEllipsisClausalellipsisisrelatedtothequestion-answerprocessindialogue,whichdeterminesthattherearetwokindsofellipsis:yes/noellipsis,andWH-ellipsis.373:TextureYes/NoEllipsisFirst,inayes/noquestion-answersequence,theanswermayinvolvetheellipsisofthewholeclause.Forexample:SpurgeonMorefunnystoriesaretoldofSpurgeonthanperhapsanygreatpreacher.Hereisagoodone.Hewascalledtothetelephonebyafriendwhosaid:“Haveyoureadthismorning’spaper?”“Yes.(Ihave)”“DidyouseeinitanoticethatIwasdead?”“Yes.(Idid)”“Whatdoyouthinkofit?”“Don’tknow,”repliedSpurgeon.“WhatIwanttoknowiswhereyouarespeakingfrom?”Second,inayes/noquestion-answersequence,theremaybeellipsisofjustonepartofit,theResidue.Forexample:-Mustwehandinourpaperattheendofthisterm?-Ofcourseyoumust(handinyourpaperattheendofthisterm).383:TextureWH-ellipsisFirst,inaWH-sequence,theentireclauseisusuallyomittedexceptfortheWH-elementitself,ortheitemthatistheresponsetotheWH-element:-“Whatdidyouthinkofthebird,Mother?”heaskedeagerly.-“Delicious!”,hismothersaid.

Second,sometimesinaWH-clause,oritsresponse,theMoodelementisleftinandonlytheResidueisomitted.Forexample:WithWH-Subject-Who’reatworknow.-Iam(atworknow).393:Texture3SubstitutionSubstitutionmeansthereplacementofoneitembyanother.Therearethreetypesofsubstitution:nominal,verbalandclausal.403:TextureNominalSubstitutionTheitemsthatoccurassubstitutesareone,ones,thesame.Forexample:-Averyniceoldladyhadafewwordstosaytohergranddaughter.“Mydear,”saidtheoldlady,‘Iwishyouwoulddosomethingforme.Iwishyouwouldpromisemenevertousetwowords.Oneis‘lousy’andtheotheris‘swell’.Wouldyoupromisemethat?”-TheclimateinNorthernChinaisnotthesameasthatinSouthernChina.413:TextureVerbalSubstitutionTheverbalsubstituteinEnglishisdo,withtheusualmorphologicalvariantformsdo,does,did,doing,done.Forexample:Shecansingaswellashedoes.(does=sings)-Doyouplayviolineveryday?-Yes,Ido.(do=playviolin)ThesubstitutedoisoftenusedwithsotosubstitutethePredicator,theObjectorthePredicatorandAdjunct.HecansingmanyItaliansongs,butIcan’tdoso.(doso=singmanyItaliansongs)423:TextureClausalSubstitutionWhatispresupposedisnotanelementwiththeclausebutanentireclause.Thewordsusedassubstitutesaresoandnot.Substitutionofthe(Reported)Clause-Willtheyarriveontime?-Ihopeso.(=Ihopetheywillarriveontime)SubstitutionofConditionalClauseConditionalclausesarefrequentlysubstitutedbysoandnot,especiallyfollowingifbutalsoinotherformssuchasassumingso,supposenot.Forexample:Everyoneseemstosupporthim.Ifso(=ifeveryonesupportshim),hewillbecometheprincipalofourschool.SubstitutionofModalizedClausesSoandnotcancombinewithsomemodaladverbs(e.g.perhaps,certainly,probably)andoccurassubstitutesforclausesexpressingmodality.Forexample:(25)–Havetheymarried?-Perhapsnot.(=Perhapstheyhaven’tmarried.)433:Texture4ConjunctionConjunctionmeansthataclauseorclausecomplex,orsomelongerstretchoftext,mayberelatedtowhatfollowsitbyoneorotherofaspecificsetofsemanticrelations(orthedevicesofvariouslogicalrelation).Therearefourtypesofconjunction:additive,adversative,causal,andtemporal.443:TextureItookabath,dined,andthendozedfitfullyforawhile.(additive)Law-and–orderisthelongest-runningandprobablythebest-lovedpoliticalissueinU.S.history.YetitispainfullyapparentthatmillionsofAmericanswhowouldneverthinkofthemselvesaslaw-breakers,letalonecriminals.(adversative)Red-lightrunninghasalwaysbeenrankedasaminorwrong,andsoitmaybeinindividualinstances.(Causal)Soonafterwardsthecloudsankdowntoearthandcoveredthesea;ithadalreadyblottedoutCapriandhiddenthepromontoryofMisenumfromsight.Thenmymotherimplored,entreated,andcommandedmetoescapeasbestasIcould–ayoungmanmightescape,whereasshewasoldandslowandcoulddieinpeaceaslongasshehadnotbeenthecauseofmydeathtoo.(temporal)Thewordsand,yet,soandthencanbetakenastypifyingthesefourgeneralconjunctiverelations.Actuallyalotofwordscanbefoundwithinthesefourgeneralcategoriesofconjunction.453:Texture5.LexicalCohesionLexicalcohesionreferstotheselectionofitemsthatarerelatedinsomewaytothosethathavegonebefore.Itincludesthefollowingdevicessuchasrepetition,synonymy&antonymy,collocation,etc.463:TextureRepetitionRepetitionisthemostdirectformoflexicalcohesion.Itmeansthechoiceofthelexicalitemthatisinsomesensesimilartotheprecedingone.Forexample:Theyoungmandoesnotlikebears,soyesterdayintheparkhegavethebearsomepoisonousfoodtoeat.Inaddition,therepeatedlexicalitemneednotbeinthesamemorphologicalshape.Forexample,dine,dining,diner,dinnerareallthesameitem,andanoccurrenceofanyoneconstitutesarepetition.Lookatanotherexample:ABarkingWifeAmanwhohadbeenmarriedfortenyearswasconsultingamarriagecounselor.“WhenIwasfirstmarried,Iwasveryhappy.I’dcomehomefromaharddaydownattheshop,andmylittledogwouldracearoundbarking,andmywifewouldbringmemyslippers.Noweverything’schanged.WhenIcomehome,mydogbringsmemyslippers,andmywifebarksatme.”“Idon’tknowwhatyou’recomplainingabout,”saidthecounselor.“You’restillgettingthesameservice.”Inthispassage,therearethreechainsoflexicalcohesion:marriedandmarriage,barkingandbarks,bringandbrings,whichsuggestthatmarry-married-marriage,bark-barks-barking,bring-bringsarerespectivelyoneandthesamelexicalitem.473:TextureSynonymyandAntonymySynonymyLexicalcohesioncanresultfromthechoiceofalexicalitemthatisinsomesensesynonymouswithaprecedingone;forexamplejokeandstory,smiledandlaughedinthefollowingpassage.TheJokeSirWilliamThompsonwasverydeafbuthedidnotlikepeopletoknowthis.Oneeveninghehadinvitedseveralfriendstodinner,andwhiletheyweresittingatthetable,oneofthefriendstoldafunnystory.Everyonelaughed,andSirWilliam,whohadlaughedasloudaseveryone,said,“Thatwasaveryfunnyjoke,butIknowafunnierone.Wouldyouliketohearit?”Theyallsaidtheywould,soSirWilliambeganhisstory.Whenitended,everyonelaughedlouderthaneverandSirWilliamsmiledhappily.Buthedidn’tknowthereasonfortheirlaughter.Hehadtoldtheverysamestorythathisfriendhadjusttold.483:TextureWhatiscloselyrelatedwithsynonymyishyponym(下义词),whosemeaningisincludedintothecategoryofsuperordinate(上坐标词).Onesuperordinate(e.g.flower)oftensubsumesseveral‘co-hyponyms’:Flower

rosedaffodildaisydandelionsnowdrop…Thesuperordinateexpressesgeneralandabstractmeaningwhilethehyponymthespecificandconcretemeaning.493:TextureAnothersemanticrelationshipismeronym(局部词),whichseemstobecongruentwithhyponym,butinfacttherelationshipbetweenmeronymandsuperordinateisakindofpart-wholeratherthanspecific-general.Forexample: Tree

roottrunkbranchleaf…Ascanbeseen,root,trunk,branch,leaf,etc.areagroupofco-meronyms.503:TextureCohesioncanalsoariseoutofthehyponymyandthemeronym.Forinstance:Ravenousfishandtastyplankton.Rainforestsdrippingwithnamelessreptiles,birdsglidingundercanopiesofleaves,insectsbuzzinglikeelectronsinanaccelerator.Frostbeltswherevolesandlemmingsflourishanddiminishwithtidyfour-yearperiodicityinthefaceofnature’sbloodycombat.Theworldmakesamessylaboratoryforecologists,acauldronoffivemillioninterestingspecies.Orisitfiftymillion?Ecologistsdonotactuallyknow.In(40),‘species’isthesuperordinate,‘fish,plankton,reptiles,birds,insects,volesandlemmings’arethehyponymsof‘species’.Theexistenceoftherelationship------superordinatevs.co-hyponyms,notonlymakesthetextacoherentunitybutalsogivestheaddresseesareal-lifefeeling.513:TextureAntonymyLexicalitemswhichareoppositeinmeaning,namelyantonyms,alsofunctionwithcohesiveeffectinatext.Forexample:Toerrishuman;toforgivedivineCheersforthelivingandtearsthedead.523:TextureCollocationCollocationreferstothe‘co-occurrencetendency’,namelysomelexicalitemsregularlytendtoco-occur.Collocationcanhelptoachievecohesiveeffectinatext.Forexample:Andsingsasolitarysong,Thatwhistlesinthewind.Thereisastrongcollocationbondbetweensingandsong,songandwhistles,whichmakethetwolinescohesive.533:TextureIntheabovewetalkedaboutHalliday’scohesivetheory.AccordingtoHalliday,textureisprovidedbycohesiverelations.Thatistosay,ifthesecohesivedevicescanensureastretchofutterancecohesive,thenitisoftextureortextuality,anditisatext.Otherwiseitisanon-text.543:TextureButBrownandYule(1983)rasiedtwoquestions:First,issuchcohesionnecessarytotheidentificationofatext?Secondly,issuchcohesionsufficienttoguaranteeidentificationasatext?Forexample:A.There’sthedoorbell.B.I’minthebath.Here,thereisnoexplicitmarkingoftherelationshipbetweenthefirstandsecondsentences.Nevertheless,anormalreaderwillnaturallyassumethatthesesequencesconstituteatextandwillinterpretthesecondsentenceinthelightofthefirstsentence.Thisexampletendstoshowusthatcohesiverelationshipisnotnecessarytotheidentificationofatext.553:TextureIboughtaFord.AcarinwhichPresidentWilsonrodedowntheChampsElyseeswasblack.BlackEnglishhasbeenwidelydiscussed.Thediscussionsbetweenthepresidentsendedlastweek.Aweekhassevendays.EverydayIfeedmycat.Catshavefourlegs.Thecatisonthemat.Mathasthreeletters.564:

TextureRobert-AlaindeBeaugrande&WolfgangU.Dressler’sTheoryBeaugrande&Dressler(1983：3):Atextwillbedefinedascommunicativeoccurrencewhichmeetssevenstandardsoftextuality.Theyare:cohesion,coherence,intentionality,acceptability,informativity,situationalityandintertextuality.Ifanyofthesestandardsisnotconsideredtohavebeensatisfied,thetextwillnotbecommunicative.Hence,non-communicativetextsaretreatedasnon-texts.574:

TextureThefirststandardiscohesion,whichmeans“stickingtogether”,andconcernsthewaysinwhichthecomponentsofthesurfacetext,i.e.theactualwordswehearandsee,aremutuallyconnectedwithinasequence.Thesurfacecomponentsdependuponeachotheraccordingtogrammaticalformsandconventions.Inthisway,cohesionrestsuponGrammaticalDependencies.Byusingtheterm,thetwoauthorsintendtoemphasizethefunctionofsyntaxincommunication.Butsometimeswecanfindthatthesurfaceisnotdecisivebyitself.Forexample:SlowChildrenAtPlaySoinordertomakecommunicationefficient,theremustbeinteractionbetweencohesionandtheotherstandardsoftextuality.584:

TextureThesecondstandardiscoherenceandconcernsthewaysinwhichthecomponentsofthetextualworld,i.e.theconfigurationofconceptsandrelationswhichunderliethesurfacetext,aremutuallyaccessibleandrelevant.594:

TextureAconceptisdefinedasaconfigurationofknowledge(cognitivecontent)whichcanberecoveredoractivatedwithmoreorlessunityandconsistencyinthemind.(大脑中能够回想或激活的多少具有同一性与一致性的知识（认知内容）构型)。Forexample:in‘Childrenatplay’,‘children’isanobjectconceptand‘play’anactionconcept,andtherelation“agent-of”obtains,becausethechildrenaretheagentsoftheaction.604:

Texture

Relationsarethelinksbetweenconceptswhichappeartogetherinatextualworld.（关系则是“一个语篇世界中同时出现的”概念之间的联系。Coherencecanbeillustratedbyagroupofrelationssubsumedundercausality.(semanticrelations:cause,enablement,reasonandpurpose).614:

TextureCause:Heworkedsohardthatheforgotthemealtime.Here,theeventof‘workingsohard’isthecauseoftheeventof‘forgetting’,becauseitcreatedthenecessaryconditionsforthelatter.Enablement:Onedaywhenthefoxwasoutlookingforfood,theeagle,whowasveryshortoffoodtoo,swoopeddowntothebushesandtookthefoxcubsuptohernestandfeastedonthemwithherownyoung.Here,thefox’sactioncreatedthesufficient,butnotnecessaryconditionsfortheeagle’saction(madeitpossible,butnotobligatory).Reason:itisusedfortherelationwhereanactionfollowsarationalresponsetosomepreviousevent.Forexample:Hewillhaveagoodwifebecauseheearnsalargeamountofmoney.Havingagoodwifeisnotactuallycausedorenabledbyhisearningalargeamountofmoney,butisareasonableandpredictableoutcomeofearningalargeamountofmoney.Purpose:Thistermisusedforaneventorsituationwhichisplannedtobecomepossibleviaapreviouseventorsituation.Forexample:Thegoatadvisedthedonkeytohaveepilepsyandtofallintoaholeinordertogetsomerest.624:

TextureCoherenceisclearlynotamerefeatureoftexts,butrathertheoutcomeofcognitiveprocessesamongtextusers.Theauthorssaid(1981:94):“CoherencewillbeenvisionedastheoutcomeofcombiningconceptsandrelationsintoanetworkcomposedofKNOWLEDGESPACEScentredaroundmainTOPICS.”634:

TextureThethirdstandardisintentionality,whichconcernsthetextproducer’sattitudethatasetofoccurrencesshouldconstituteacohesiveandcoherenttextinstrumentalinfulfillingtheproducer’sintention.Thatistosay,textproducersusetextstopursueandfulfiltheirintentions.ThisistrueinSearle’stheory.Searle,basedonAustin,developedthenotionof“speechacts”.Hedistinguishes:(a)utteranceacts,(2)propositionalacts,(3)illocutionaryacts,(4)perlocutionaryacts.Beaugrande&Dresslerclaimedthatinhandlingdiscourse,textproducersandreceiversrelyuponGrice’sCooperativePrinciple(conversationalimplicature).Butthisisstillunclear.Itcannotexplainthediscoursegoals.Theyproposedthatamorepromisingviewistoviewtheproductionandreceptionoftexts(orsentences)asprobabilisticoperation644:

TextureCooperativePrinciple(Grice1975)Quantity:Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequired(fo