欧洲中世纪的科学技术

ScienceinMedieval

WesternEurope

-----HuHepengThebeginningoftheMiddleAgesin476AD,thefalloftheRomanEmpire,abouttheendofthe15thcentury.Thehistoryofthismillenniumcanberoughlydividedintotwosections.Beforetheeleventhcenturyisoftenreferredtoasthedarkages,whenWesternEuropeintheChristiantheologyandphilosophyofdogmatismundertheruleofpeoplelosttheirfreedomofthought,productionrigid,slowtechnologicalprogress,mathematicalstagnation.Thesituationimprovedslightlyaftertheeleventhcentury.

soWesternEuropeanscientificdevelopmentwaslaggingbehindtheIslamicworld,theMediterraneanBasin,China,andIndiaandotherregions,fromthe12thcenturytocatchupagain.Andmainlyinastrology,medicine,mathematics,naturalsciences,socialsciencesandtechnology,etc.,

mathematicsGreekculturethroughtheRomanstothemedievallittle,thisismostlyreflectedinBoisis(about480~524)inthebook.His"arithmeticprinciple"isgenerallyaneo-PythagoreanmathematicianNikoMaosi"arithmeticintroduction"translation,butanumberofbrilliantpropositionsweredeleted.The"geometry"ofBoisiswasbasedonEuclid's"originalgeometry,"butitwasnotprovedatallbecausehethoughttheproofwassuperfluous.In529AD,theemperoroftheEastRomanemperorJustinTimberlakeclosedtheschoolinAthens,forbiddentostudyandspreadmathematics.Onceagain,thedevelopmentofmathematicssufferedaheavyblow.Afterhundredsofyears,commendablemathematicianisnumbered,andmostlyclergy.AftertheCrusadeexpedition(1096~1291)sothatEuropeansaccesstotheArabcountriestoretaintheancientculturaltreasures.TheytranslatealargenumberofArabicbooksintoLatin.SothecultureofGreece,IndiaandtheArabs,aswellasChina'sfourmajorinventionswillbespreadtoEurope.Italyislocatedintheeast-westhubofcommunications,hasgraduallybecometheneweconomicandculturalcenter.12,13centuryEuropeanmathematicalcommunityrepresentativeisFibonacci,heintroducedtotheEuropeansinIndia-Arabiadigitalandbitvaluesystemnotation,andvariousalgorithmsinthecommercialapplication.China'slackofsurplussurgeryandthe"Sun-count"DiophantinesolutionalsoappearsinthebookFibonacci.The14th-centuryFrenchbishopOrsimintroducedtheideaofasub-indexnotationandacoordinatesystem,whichwasthetransitionfromastronomy,geography,latitudeandlongitudetomoderncoordinategeometry.BritishArchbishopBradWardin'sarithmetic,geometry,mechanicalworksalsohavegreatinfluence.ThefirstEuropeansystemoftrigonometrywaswrittenbyReggioMontanus.KarlDanDoctorofMedicine,the16thcenturyRenaissancerepresentativeofhumanism,themostimportantworksofmathematicsispublishedinNuremberg,"DaShu"(thefullnameof"DaShu,oronalgebraiclaw"),thebooksystemTherearemanynewconceptsandmethodsinalgebra,withsolutionstocubicandquarticequations(foundbyCalderan'spupilFerrari.Therootoftheequationinthe"bigtechnique"isusedtodiscusstheproblemofimaginaryrootsencounteredintheequation,forthefirsttimeasageneralnumberofoperations,realizethatifanequationhasavirtualroot,youshouldhaveandOftheconjugateofanothervirtualroot.Bombelli,hispredecessorshavethisdisciplinetoadevelopmentclimax.PompeythinksthatnobodybutCaldanecangodeepintothesubjectofmathematics,butheisnotsatisfiedwiththeexpressionofKardan,soreadytowriteabook,withitsclearstatementsothatanyonecanDonothavetorelyonotherbooksandgrasptheknowledgeofalgebra,whichispublishedBomberley"algebra"background.InthebookBombleyintroducedtheimaginarynumber,formallygivenacleardefinitionofnegative.

TheVedas"AppliedtotheMathematicalLawoftheTriangle"system,describesasphericaltrianglewithallsixtrigonometricfunctions,whichmaybethefirstbookinWesternEurope.Angle"systemofthesphericaltriangleandplanartrigonometry.AstrologyAswetracetheastral-astronomicalbranchoftheancientscientificculture,itisnotdifficulttosenseandgraspthehistoricalcontextfromthesideofthehistoricalfootprintoftheMiddleAges.Becauseastronomicalastronomyitselfisspecial,itiscloselyrelatedtomedicine,literature,politicsandreligion.TheArabsinAstrology-thecontributionofastronomy,itisatouchofbrightlightintheMiddleAges.Mostscholarsofthetimebelievedthatastrologywasanimportantcomponentofthewholesystemofknowledge,andthatBoitiuswasnoexceptioninhismasterpiece,TheComfortofPhilosophy.Hebelievesthattheplanet'soperationiscontrolledbythe"immortalgods",andfromthecelestialsphereofthestars,youcandeducetheearthlyaffairs.HealsoagreedwithPlato'sviewthateachplanethasitsowncorrespondingscale,constitutethe"CelestialMusic",showingtheharmonyoftheuniverse.Therearealsosomedetailsofthecelestialsphere,drawingsomeofthecommonillustrationsintheAstronomicalBook-buttheydonotaddanynewknowledgetoastronomy.ThisphilosophicalworkwiththecontentoftheastrologywaslatertranslatedbytheKingofEngland,Alfred,attheendofthe9thcentury,tobetheAnglo-Saxonlanguage,Inthe14thcentury,whentheEnglishwriterGeorgeChaucertranslatedintoOldEnglish,Chaucerwasalsoascholarwhowasobsessedwithastrology.AstrologyintheRenaissanceInthe15thcentury,thechurch'sattitudetoastrologychangeddramatically.Forthemembersoftheearlychurch,suchasAtanachus,Cyril,Arnobos,GrandGregorian,Basil,andAugustine,allregardedastrologyasapaganpriesthood,Andtobecritical.Ofcourse,sincesomeoftheearlyastrologerwriterswereneo-Platonists,thismadethemawareoftheinfluenceofcosmicobjectsonhumans.Thesunbringslightandwarmthtohumanlife,andthemoonaffectstides.TheoperationalcycleofthecosmiccelestialbodiesdeterminestheseasonsoftheEarthandtheliturgicalcalendaroftheCatholicChurch,eveniftheyareusedfordivination.socialscience1,theearlymedievalEuropeanscientificandtechnologicalstagnation1),thedeclineofscience:PopeGregoryIopenlydeclared:"ignoranceisnoreligionisthemotherofpiety."ThedoctrinesandprinciplesoftheChurchare"revelationhigherthanreason","knowledgeobeyingfaith","philosophy(includingscience)obeyingtheology".2),thetechnicalback:ThedeclineofEuropeanhandicraftsintheearlyMiddleAgesandtheruinsofsomeoftheoldindustrialandcommercialcenters.Inadditiontoaslightimprovementinagriculturaltechnology,thewhole,theearlyMiddleAges,theEuropeantechnologyandtheriseoftheRomanEmpireisgreatlycomparedtotheperiodofregression2,thelatemedievalEuropeanscienceandtechnologyrecovery1,there-developmentofscientificactivitiesTranslationofArabicliteratureLearningAncientGreekScienceandCultureRunauniversity2,technologicalprogressFarmingefficiency,cropspeciesincreased,agriculturehasagreaterdevelopment;Watermachinery,windmachinery,allkindsofironmachineryiswidelyusedinmetallurgy,mining,textileindustries,topromotethedevelopmentofhandicrafts.3,thelatescientificandtechnologicalachievementsAgriculturalmachineryandequipmentHydraulicmills,windmills,mining,roadconstruction,drainageCultivatedcropRye,oats,spelledwheatandhopsMechanicalinventionMechanicalsaws,forginghammerswi