社会学基础英文授课第六讲-性别阶层化

TheFoundationsofSocietyLecture6GenderStratificationGenderandInequalityGender–PersonaltraitsandsocialpositionsthatmembersofasocietyattachtobeingfemaleandmaleHierarchy-rankingmenandwomendifferentlyintermsofpower,wealth,andotherresources.Genderstratification–Unequaldistributionofwealth,power,andprivilegebetweenmenandwomenMale-femalebiologicaldifferencesbecarefulnottothinkofsocialdifferencesinbiologicalterms.exampleofwomen'srighttovoteandathleticperformanceDomennaturallyoutperformwomeninathleticcompetition?Theanswerisnotobvious.Earlyinthetwentiethcentury,menoutpacedwomenbymorethananhourinmarathonraces.Butasopportunitiesforwomeninathleticshaveincreased,womenhavebeenclosingtheperformancegap.Onlyelevenminutesseparatethecurrentworldmarathonrecordsforwomen(setin2003)andformen(setin2008).SomedifferencesinphysicalabilitybetweenthesexsMalesare10%taller,20%heavier,and30%strongerespeciallyintheupperbody;Women,asagroup,livelongerthanmen.Inalldevelopedcountriesandmostundevelopedones,womenoutlivemen,sometimesbyamarginofasmuchas10years.Researchdoesnotpointtoanydifferenceinoverallintelligencebetweenmalesandfemales.Biologicallymenandwomendifferinlimitedways;neitheroneisnaturallysuperior.Butculturecandefinethetwosexesverydifferently.GenderinaGlobalPerspectiveIsraelikibbutzimGenderequalityisastatedgoal.Menandwomenshareinbothworkanddecisionmaking.Womenandmeninthekibbutzimhaveachievedremarkable(althoughnotcomplete)socialequality,evidencethatculturesdefinewhatisfeminineandwhatismasculine.GenderinaGlobalPerspectiveMargaretMead’sresearchinNewGuineaCultureiskeytogenderdifferences.Arapesh-bothsexeswere"feminine"Mundugumor-bothsexeswere"masculine"Tchambuli-Femalesweredominantandrationalandmalesweresubmissive,emotionalandnurturingtowardchildren.GenderinaGlobalPerspectiveGeorgeMurdock’sresearchSomeglobalagreementaboutfeminineandmasculinetasks.Huntingandwarfare,generallyfalltomen,andhomecenteredtaskssuchascookingandchildcaretendtobewomen’swork.GenderandcultureWhatitmeanstobemaleorfemaleismostlyacreationofsociety.PatriarchyandSexismMatriarchy–AformofsocialorganizationinwhichfemalesdominatemalesMusuoinChina-womencontroleverthingPatriarchyandSexismPatriarchy(“ruleoffathers”)-aformofsocialorganizationinwhichmalesdominatefemales.Women’ssocialstandinginrelationtomen’svariesaroundtheworld.Ingeneral,womenlivebetterinrichcountriesthaninpoorcountries.Sexism-thebeliefthatonesexisinnatelysuperiortotheother.InstitutionalsexismfoundthroughouttheeconomyThecostsofsexismSexismlimitshalfofthehumanpopulation.InevitabilityofpatriarchyMostsociologistsbelievegenderissociallyconstructedandcanbechanged.GenderandSocializationGenderandSocializationResearchsuggeststhatmostyoungpeopledeveloppersonalitiesthatareamixoffeminineandmasculinetraits.Genderaffectshowwethinkofourselvesandteachesushowtobehave.Genderroles(sexroles)–AttitudesandactivitiesthatasocietylinkstoeachsexWhyDoGenderRolesDiffer?Therearemanytheoriestoexplainforthedifferencesingenderrolesfromculturetoculture:1.Sociobiology—arguesthatevolutionandgeneticfactorscanexplainwhymenaregenerallymoreaggressivethanwomen.Topropagatetheirgenes,theymustdefeattheircompetition.2.Sociallearningtheory—saysthatpeoplelearnattitudes,beliefsandbehaviorsthroughsocialinteractions.Thelearningisaresultofreinforcement.WhyDoGenderRolesDiffer?3.Cognitivedevelopmenttheory—Arguesthatchildrenacquirefemaleormalevaluesontheirownbythinking,reasoning,andinterpretinginformationintheirenvironment.4.Symbolicinteractiontheory—saysthatgenderrolesaresociallyconstructedcategoriesthatemergeinsocialsituations.5.Feministtheorists—saythatgenderisasociallyconstructedrolethatistaughtcarefullyandrepeatedly—muchlikesociallearningtheory.HowDoWeLearnGenderRoles?Parentsareusuallythefirstandbyfarthemostinfluentialsocializationagents.Parentsteachgenderrolesthrough:Talking—parentsoftencommunicatedifferentlywithboysandgirls.Settingexpectations—evenattimesunknowingly,parentssetdifferentexpectationsforgirlsandforboysinthingslikesports,school,andhouseholdchores.Providingopportunities—Parentsprovideculturalopportunitiesbasedonwhatisacceptedforboysandgirls.GenderandtheFamilyIsitaboyorgirl?Color-codinggenderTraditionalnotionsofgenderidentityHandlingofchildrenFemale:passivityandemotionMale:independenceandactionGenderandPeerGroupsJanetLever(1978)Boysfavorteamsportswithcomplexrulesandclearobjectives.Girls’sportsteachinterpersonalskillsandthevalueofsharingandcooperation.Gilligan(1982)Boysreasonaccordingtoabstractprinciples.Girlsconsidermoralityamatterofresponsibilitytoothers.GenderandSchoolingGendershapesourinterestsandbeliefsaboutourownabilities,guidingareasofstudyand,eventually,careerchoices.Areasofstudyarealwaysgender-typedTeachersandSchoolsTeachersandschoolssendanumberofgender-relatedmessagesthatfollowboysandgirlsfromgradeschoolthroughcollege.Teachersinelementary,middle,andhighschoolshaveahugeinfluenceonourchildrenandsomehaveverysex-stereotypedexpectations.CollegeWomenearnabout58%ofbachelor’sdegreesand60%ofmaster’sdegrees.Still,womenfocusmoreontraditionalfemalekindsofrolesliketeaching,socialwork,andnursing.Somesaywomenchoosethesefieldsbecausetheylikethem,whileotherssaytheyarenotgiventhesameearlychancesinmathandsciencethatboysaregiven,sotheydon’tchoosethosefields.GenderandtheMassMediaWhitemaleshavecenterstage.Minoritieslockedoutuntiltheearly1970s.Womenreceiverolesbasedonsexappeal.Mediamythsthateverywomenshouldlooklikeasupermodelassaultoursenseseveryday.Advertisementsisoneimportantwaythatwomenare“taught”tolookacertainway.Itisnotovert,buttendstobeverycovert.ThePublishingMediaNewspapersespeciallytendtobeverymale-dominated.Asurveyof104nationalmagazinesandlocalnewspapersfoundthatin3,500frontpagestories,malesourcesoutnumberedfemalesourcesalmostthreetoone!Forthemostpart,menstilldominatewrittenandtelevisionmedia.WhatAretheCostsandBenefits?Traditionalroleshavebothbenefitsandcosts—seethetablefollowing.WhyDoTraditionalRolesContinue?Formanyfamilies,traditionalrolesarebeneficialforseveralreasons,especiallywhenonepartnercanbethesolebreadwinnerandonepartnercanbethecaregiverwhenitcomestothechildren.GenderStratificationGenderstratificationreferstopeople’sunequalaccesstowealth,power,status,prestige,opportunity,andothervaluedresourcesbecauseoftheirgender.GenderintheWorkplaceInmostoftheworld,occupationsaregendered.Whilewesaythatanyonecandoanyjob,therestilltendtobejobsthatare“women’s”jobsandjobsthatare“men’s”jobs.HouseworkTheSecondShiftInmanycases,oneofthemajorsourcesoftensionbetweencouplesisthatthereisanunequalsplitofthesecondshift—thattimeafterworkwhenhousework,dinner,andchildcaretakesplace.GenderandPoliticsAgain,aswithworkplacediscrimination,discriminationinpoliticshascomealongway.Womenholdjust19%ofseatsintheworld's188parliaments.GenderandEducationGenderandReligionReligionshapesgenderandfamilyrolesinmanyways.Religionalsoshapesthedivisionoflaborinthehome.Atreligiouscollegesanduniversities,somefemalefacultymembersbelievethattheirexpectedgenderrolesareconstraining.Oftentherearefewfemalefull-timefacultyatsuchinstitutions.GenderandInteractionWomenandmenaremoresimilarthandifferentintheirinteractions.Researchshowsthatwomen’sinteractionsfocusaroundrelationshipandrelationshipbuilding,whilemen’scommunicationtendstobemorefocusedonconversationaldominance,suchasspeakingmorefrequentlyandforlongerperiodsoftime.TheGlobal

GenderGapIndexTheGGGItriestomeasurethewell-beingofwomenonaglobalscale.Itgaugestherelativeequilitybetweenmenandwomenonanindicator.AreWomenaMinority?

Aminorityisanycategoryofpeopledistinguishedbyphysicalorcultural

differencethatasocietysetsapartandsubordinates.Ateveryclasslevel,womenhavelessincome,wealth,education,andpowerthanmen.Intersectiontheory–Theinterplayofrace,class,andgender,oftenresultinginmultipledimensionsofdisadvantage.Disadvantageslinkedtogenderandraceoftencombinetoproduceespeciallylowsocialstanding.MultilayeredsystemofdisadvantageforsomeandprivilegeforothersFeminismWorkingtoincreaseequalityExpansionofhumanchoiceEliminategenderstratificationEndingsexualviolencePromotesexualfreedomTheadvocacyofsocialequalityforwomenandmen,inoppositiontopatriarchyandsexismTypesofFeminismLiberalfeminismFreetodevelopowntalentsandinterestsSocialistfeminismPursuescollectivepersonalliberationRadicalfeminismEliminateideaofgenderEgalitarian,gender-freerevolutionOppositiontofeminismThreattomalestatusandself-respec