沙丽金版法律英语

TortLawGeneralDefinitionTortlawisthebodyoflawthatdealswithcivilwrongs,exceptthosethatarisefromcontractproblems.PurposetocompensateaninjuredpartythroughtheawardofdamagesfortheinjuriesincurredduringatortiousactGeneralUnderlyingpolicyconsiderationsmaintenanceofapeacefulsocietydeterrencesocialresponsibilitythebalancingofeconomicinterestsagainstsocietalbenefitsIntentionalTortsGeneralDefinitionanyintentionalactsthatarereasonablyforeseeabletocauseharmtoanindividual,andthatdosoIntentIntentismostoftenprovedthroughcircumstantialevidence—thedefendant’sconduct,inthecontextofhisorhersurroundingsandwhatheorshepresumablyknewandperceived.GeneralTransferredintentTransferredintentisadoctrineusedinbothcriminallawandtortlawwhentheintentiontoharmoneindividualinadvertentlycausesasecondpersontobehurtinstead.Underthelaw,theindividualcausingtheharmwillbeseenashaving"intended"theactbymeansofthe"transferredintent"doctrine.GeneralAssaultDefinition(incommonlaw)anintentionalactthatcreatesanapprehensionofanimminentharmfuloroffensivecontactAssaultandbatteryAsdistinguishedfrombattery,assaultneednotinvolveactualcontact—itonlyneedsintentandtheresultingapprehension.wieldingaknifeAssaultyellingthewordsnaketoapersonwhomyouknowisinfearofsnakesCriminalassaultandtortiousassaultIncriminallaw,anassaultcanresultfromanattemptedbattery.Sincesomeattemptedbatteriesmighttheoreticallyoccurwhenthevictimissleeping,unconscious,orunawareofthethreat,criminalassaultcanoccurevenwhennothreatisperceivedbythevictim.AssaultWiththetortofassault,aperceivedthreatbythevictimisparamount.＊Adefendantthrowsarockatasleepingvictim.Hecanonlybeguiltyoftheattemptedbatteryassault,sincethevictimwouldnotbeawareofthepossibleharm.BatteryDefinition(atcommonlaw)anintentionalactcausinganunconsentedharmfuloroffensivecontactwithapersonCriminalbatteryandtortiousbatteryCriminallawrecognizesdegreesofcrimesinvolvingphysicalcontact.Thereisbutasingletortofbattery.Battery“Harmful"contactcontactthatobjectivelyintendstoinjure,disfigure,impair,orcausepain“Offensive"contactcontactthatwouldoffendaperson’ssenseofpersonaldignityExamplesspittinginsomeone'sfaceBatteryintentionallyknockingahatoffsomeone'sheadorknockingaglassoutofsome-one'shandwhippingahorseonwhichaplaintiffwasriding,causingtheplaintifftofallandbeinjured(anurse)failingtowarnablindpatientthatheisheadedtowardanopenwindow,causinghimtofallandinjurehimselfFalseImprisonmentFalseImprisonmentabsenceofareasonablemeansofescapeRemediesAcourtmayissueawritofhabeascorpustoreleaseapartyfromunlawfulrestraint.Thepersonfalselyimprisonedmaysuetheoffenderfordamages.IIEDDefinition★shortforintentionalinflictionofemotionaldistress★referredtoasthetortofoutrageinsomejurisdictionsintentionalconductthatresultsinextremeemotionaldistressElementsThedefendantmustactintentionallyorrecklessly;IIEDthedefendant'sconductmustbeextremeandoutrageous;andtheconductmustcausetheplaintifftosuffersevereemotionaldistress.ExamplesAdefendantrefusedtoinformaplaintiffofthewhereaboutsoftheplaintiff'schildforseveralyears,thoughthatdefendantknewwherethechildwastheentiretime.IIEDAdefendantsentalettertoaplaintifffalselyinformingthepersonthataclosefamilymemberhadbeenkilledinanaccident.StatuteofLimitationsDefinitionanenactmentthatrestrictsthetimewithinwhichlegalproceedingsmaybeinitiatedObjectivedesignedtopreventclaimsfromarisingafterallevidencehasbeenlostorafterthefactshavebecomeobscurethroughthepassageoftime,orthedeathordisappearanceofwitnessesStatuteofLimitationsFunctionThestatuteoflimitationsisadefensethatisordinarilyassertedbythedefendanttodefeatanactionbroughtagainsthimaftertheappropriatetimehaselapsed.ApplicationThedefendantmustraisethedefensebeforethecourtuponansweringtheplaintiff'scomplaint.StatuteofLimitationsIfnot,heisregardedashavingwaivedthedefenseandwillnotbepermittedtouseitinanysubsequentproceedings.TollingthestatuteMostjurisdictionsprovidethatlimitationsaretolledundercertaincircumstances.Theaggrievedparty(plaintiff)isaminor.Theplaintiffhasfiledabankruptcyproceeding.Shopkeeper'sPrivilegeGeneralInsomejurisdictionsoftheUS,thecourtsrecognizeacommonlawshopkeeper'sprivilege,underwhichashopkeeperisallowedtodetainasuspectedshoplifteronstorepropertyforareasonableperiodoftime,solongastheshopkeeperhascausetobelievethatthepersondetainedinfactcommitted,orattemptedtocommit,theftofstoreproperty.Shopkeeper'sPrivilegeRequisiteconditionsInvestigationonornearpremisesThedetentionitselfshouldbeeffectedeitheronthestorepremisesorintheimmediatevicinitythereof.ReasonablesuspicionTheshopkeeperhasreasonablegroundstosuspecttheparticularpersondetainedisshoplifting.ReasonableforceonlyShopkeeper'sPrivilegeOnlyreasonable,non-deadlyforceisusedtoeffectthedetention.ReasonableperiodandmannerofdetentionThedetentionitselfmaybeforonlythetimenecessarytomakeareasonableinvestigationofthefacts.PropertyTortsGeneralDefinitionPropertytortsareaspecificclassofintentionaltortswhicharisewhentherightinvadedisapropertyrightratherthanapersonalright.Typestrespasstolandenteringsomeone'slandwithoutpermissionGeneraltrespasstochattelshandlingitemsownedbyanotherwithoutpermissionconversiontakingpossessionofsomeoneelse'spropertywiththeintentnottoreturnitTrespasstoLandDefinitionthewrongfulinterferencewithone'spossessoryrightsin(real)property★Itisactionableperse.(Itisnotnecessarytoprovethatharmwassufferedtobringaclaim.)InterferenceanyphysicalentrytolandthrowinganythingonthelandTrespasstoLandtheabuseofarightofentry,whenapersonwhohastherighttoenterthelanddoessomethingnotcoveredbythepermissionLandthesurfaceanythingpermanentlyattachedtotheland,suchashousesthesubsoiltheairspaceTrespasstoChattelsDefinitiontheintentionalinterferencewithanotherperson'slawfulpossessionofachattel(movablepersonalproperty)Interferenceanyphysicalcontactwiththechattelinaquantifiablewayanydispossessionofthechattel(whetherbytakingit,destroyingit,orbarringtheowner'saccesstoit)TrespasstoChattelsElementsLackofconsentTheinterferencewiththepropertymustbenon-consensual.ActualharmTheinterferencewiththepropertymustresultinactualharm.IntentionalityTheinterferencemustbeintentional.ConversionDefinitionthewrongfuldispositionofanother’spropertyasifitwereone’sownPropertysubjecttoconversionItmustbepersonalproperty:Realpropertycannotbelostandthenfound.Itmustbetangible:ananimal,money,furniture,tools,orreceipts;Conversioncropsortimber(aftertheyareseveredfromtheground)therightsinapaper,suchasalifeinsurancepolicy,astockcertificate,orapromissorynoteElementsTheplaintiffownsorhastherighttopossessthepropertyinquestionatthetimeoftheinterference;thedefendantintentionallyinterferedwiththeplaintiff'sproperty;Conversiontheinterferencedeprivedtheplaintiffofpossessionoruseofthepropertyinquestion;andtheinterferencecauseddamagestotheplaintiff.TraditionaldefensesAbandonmentThepropertyhadbeenabandonedbeforeitwastakenbythedefendant.ConversionAuthorityoflawThepropertywastakenbyauthorityoflaw,acourtorderorvalidprocess.ConsentThepropertywastakenwithconsentoftheplaintiff,eitherexpressorimplied.FraudoftheplaintiffTheplaintiffconveyedpropertytoathirdpersonforpurposesofevadingcreditors.TrespasstoChattelsandConversionSimilarityBothincludethewrongful,intentionalinterferenceofpersonalproperty.DifferenceThedifferencebetweenthemisoneofdegree—thedegreeofpossessiontheinterferingpersonhasassumed.Ingeneral,whenanobjectisdamagedbutrepairable,trespasstochattelsisthemoreappropriatetort.Whensomethingisdestroyedorstolen,conversionismoreappropriate.TrespasstoChattelsandConversionWhentrespassisfound,apersoncanrecoverthevalueofthe"lostuse"oftheitem—andrecovertheitemitself.Conversion,ontheotherhand,allowsapersontorecoverthefullvalueoftheitem.ExampleIfsomeonestealspropertyfromyouandyouareabletorecoveritwithminimalornodamages,youmayhaveacauseofactionintrespasstochattel.Ifthesamepersonstealsthepropertyandsellsittoanother,youwillhaveacauseofactioninconversion.NegligenceGeneralDefinitionconductthatisculpablebecauseitfallsshortofwhatareasonablepersonwoulddotoprotectanotherindividualfromforeseeablerisksofharmElementsThedefendantowedadutytotheplaintiff;thedefendantbreachedthatduty;Generalasaresultofthedefendant'sbreachofthatduty,theplaintiffsufferedinjury;andtheinjurywasareasonablyforeseeableconsequenceofthedefendant'sactionorinaction.DutyofCareDefinitionIntortlaw,adutyofcareisalegalobligationimposedonanindividualrequiringthattheyadheretoastandardofreasonablecarewhileperforminganyactsthatcouldforeseeablyharmothers.ForeseeabilityDutyofCareStandardofCareDefinitionthedegreeofprudenceandcautionrequiredofanindividualwhoisunderadutyofcareThereasonablepersonstandardEachpersonowesadutytobehaveasareasonablepersonwouldunderthesameorsimilarcircumstances.StandardofCareFactorsinvolved:theknowledge,experience,andperceptionofthepersontheactivitythepersonisengaginginthephysicalcharacteristicsofthepersonthecircumstancessurroundingtheperson'sactionsNIEDGeneralshortfornegligent

inflictionofemotionaldistressacontroversialcauseofactionContrastwithIIEDThereisnoneedtoproveintenttoinflictdistress.(Thatis,anaccidentalinfliction,ifnegligent,issufficienttosupportacauseofaction.)NIEDUnderlyingconceptOnehasalegaldutytousereasonablecaretoavoidcausingemotionaldistresstoanotherindividual.Ifonefailsinthisdutyandunreasonablycausesemotionaldistresstoanotherperson,thatactorwillbeliableformonetarydamagestotheinjuredindividual.ContributoryNegligenceDefinitionadefensethatbarsaplaintifffromrecoveryifhisorherownactsoromissionscontributetotheinjuryBurdenofproofInsomejurisdictions,thedefendanthastoprovethenegligenceofaplaintifforclaimant.Inothers,theburdenisonaplaintifftodisprovehisownnegligence.ContributoryNegligenceDefectItisoftenregardedasunfairbecauseunderthedoctrineavictimwhoisatfaulttoanydegree,includingonly1%atfault,willbedeniedcompensationentirely.ComparativeNegligenceDefinitionadefensethatreducestheamountofdamagesthataplaintiffcanrecoverinanegligence-basedclaimbaseduponthedegreetowhichtheplaintiff'sownnegligencecontributedtotheinjuryTypes‘Pure’comparativenegligenceIfaplaintiffis90%atfaultheorshecanstillrecover10%ofhislosses.ComparativeNegligence‘Partial’comparativenegligenceIfaplaintiffismorethan50%atfaultheorshecannotrecover.AssumptionofRiskAssumptionofRiskTheoryUponassumptionoftherisk,thereisnolongeradutyofcarerunningfromthedefendanttotheplaintiff.Withoutadutyowedbythedefendant,therecanbenonegligenceonhispart.ApplicationThisdefenseiscommonlyusedincasesofinjuriesoccurringduringriskyrecreationalactivities.StrictLiabilityTortsGeneralStrictliabilityIntortlaw,strictliabilityisliabilitywithoutfault(suchasnegligenceortortiousintent).PolicybasisUndercertaincircumstances,aplaintiffmaybeallowedrecoveryeventhoughthereisnofaultonthepartofthedefendant.GeneralApplicationStrictliabilityoftenappliestothoseengagedinhazardousorinherentlydangerousactivities:blastingstoringinherentlydangeroussubstanceskeepingwildanimalsItalsoappliestosellersandmanufacturers.ProductLiabilityProductLiabilityTypesofliabilityManufacturingdefectManufacturingdefectsarethosethatoccurinthemanufacturingprocessandusuallyinvolvepoor-qualitymaterialsorshoddyworkmanship.DesigndefectDesigndefectsoccurwheretheproductdesignisinherentlydangerousoruseless(andhencedefective)nomatterhowcarefullymanufactured.ProductLiabilityFailure-to-warndefect(alsoknownasmarketingdefect)Failure-to-warndefectsariseinproductsthatcarryinherentnonobviousdangerswhichcouldbemitigatedthroughadequatewarningstotheuser,andthesedangersarepresentregardlessofhowwelltheproductismanufacturedanddesignedforitsintendedpurpose.Ultra-hazardousActivityGeneralAnultra-hazardousactivityinthecommonlawoftortsisonethatissoinherentlydangerousthatapersonengagedinsuchanactivitycanbeheldstrictlyliableforinjuriescausedtoanotherperson,evenifthepersonengagedintheactivitytookeveryreasonableprecautiontopreventothersfrombeinginjured.Ultra-hazardousActivityCategoriesTransportation,storage,anduseofultra-hazardousmaterialsdynamiteandotherexplosivesradioactivematerialscertainhazardouschemicalsKeepingofdangerousanimalswildanimals(i.e.animalsthatarenotnormallydomesticatedinthatarea)domesticatedanimalsthathaveaknownpropensityfordangerousbehaviorNuisanceGeneralDefinitionsomethingthatcausesoffence,annoyance,troubleorinjuryThelawofnuisanceUnderthecommonlaw,personsinpossessionofrealpropertyareentitledtothequietenjoymentoftheirlands.Ifaneighborinterfereswiththatquietenjoyment,theaffectedpartymaymakeaclaiminnuisance.GeneralTypesPrivatenuisance—acivilwrongaviolationofone'suseorquietenjoymentoflandPublicnuisance—acriminalwronganunreasonableinterferencewiththepublic'srighttoproperty★Itincludesconductthatinterfereswithpublichealth,safety,peaceorconvenience.P