2025年托福阅读考试真题及答案

2025年托福阅读考试真题及答案Passage1TheLateHeavyBombardmentThesurfaceoftheMoonismarkedbynumerousimpactcraters,atestamenttoaviolentperiodintheearlyhistoryofoursolarsystem.Fordecades,scientistsbelievedthattherateofasteroidandcometimpactsdeclinedsteadilyaftertheplanetsformedabout4.5billionyearsago.However,studiesoflunarsamplesreturnedbytheApollomissionsinthe1960sand1970ssuggestedamorecomplexhistory.Theseanalysesindicatedthattherewasasuddenspikeintheimpactratearound3.9billionyearsago,aphenomenonnowknownastheLateHeavyBombardment(LHB).ThisperiodposessignificantquestionsabouttheevolutionoftheearlyEarthandtheoriginoflife.TheprimaryevidencefortheLateHeavyBombardmentcomesfromthedatingoflunarimpactmeltrocks.Thesearerockscreatedwhentheimmenseheatofanasteroidorcometimpactmeltsthesurroundingregolith,whichthencoolsandsolidifies.Byanalyzingtheisotopicratiosofelementslikeuraniumandleadwithintheserocks,geochronologistscandeterminetheircrystallizationage.Surprisingly,alargenumberofthesemeltrocksclusteraroundanageof3.9billionyears.Ifimpactshadoccurredsteadilyovertime,onewouldexpecttofindmeltrocksofawidevarietyofagesdistributedevenlyacrossthelunartimeline.Theclusteringofagessuggeststhattheinnersolarsystemexperiencedacataclysmicinfluxofprojectilesduringarelativelyshortwindow,lastingperhaps20to200millionyears.WhydidtheLateHeavyBombardmentoccur?Themostwidelyacceptedhypothesisinvolvesthemigrationofthegiantplanets.Accordingtothe"NiceModel"(namedafterthecityinFrancewhereitwasdeveloped),thegiantplanets—Jupiter,Saturn,Uranus,andNeptune—werenotalwaysintheircurrentorbits.Shortlyafterthesolarsystemformed,gravitationalinteractionsamongtheseplanetsandwiththediskofgasanddustcausedthemtomigrate.AsJupitermovedinwardslightly,Saturnmovedoutward.Thisshiftingeventuallydisruptedtheorbitsofthousandsofsmallbodieslocatedintheoutersolarsystem,specificallyintheKuiperBeltandthescattereddisk.Thesebodiesweresenthurtlingtowardtheinnersolarsystem,bombardingtheterrestrialplanetsandtheMoon.TheimplicationsoftheLHBforEarthareprofound.Duringthisperiod,Earthwaslikelysubjectedtoimpactsthatwerecapableofvaporizingportionsoftheoceansandsterilizingtheplanet'ssurface.Someresearchersarguethatthisbombardmentwouldhavemadetheoriginoflifeimpossiblebefore3.9billionyearsago.However,geologicalevidenceonEarthsuggeststhatliquidwaterexistedpriortotheLHB,indicatedbyancientzirconcrystalsfromWesternAustraliathatareover4billionyearsold.Thishasledtoacompetinghypothesis:perhapslifearoseveryearlyonEarthandsurvivedthebombardmentbylivingindeep-seahydrothermalventsorundergroundhabitats,shieldedfromthecatastrophicsurfaceevents.Alternatively,theLHBmighthaveactuallydeliveredthecomplexorganicmoleculesnecessaryforlifethroughcometaryimpacts,"seeding"asterileEarth.ThedebateovertheLHBisnotsettled.Somecriticsarguethattheapparentclusteringoflunarimpactdatesmightbeanartifactofsamplingbias.TheApollomissionsalllandedonthenearsideoftheMoon,specificallyinareasdominatedbylargebasinslikeMareImbriumandMareSerenitatis.Itispossiblethattherockscollectedrepresentafewmajorimpactsthataffectedthesespecificregionsratherthanaglobalspikeinimpactrates.FuturemissionstothefarsideoftheMoonortomorediverselunarterrainsareneededtoconfirmwhethertheLHBwastrulyasolar-system-wideeventoralocalizedphenomenonrelatedtotheformationoftheMoon'smajorbasins.Untilthen,theLateHeavyBombardmentremainsapivotal,yetdebated,chapterinthestoryofoursolarsystem.Questions:1.Theword"testament"inthepassageisclosestinmeaningtoA.contradictionB.evidenceC.predictionD.decoration2.Accordingtoparagraph1,whatwasthetraditionalviewregardingthehistoryofthesolarsystembeforetheApollomissions?A.Theplanetsformedmuchlaterthanpreviouslythought.B.ThenumberofimpactsontheMoonincreasedovertime.C.Therateofimpactsdeclinedcontinuouslyaftertheplanetsformed.D.TheEarthandMoonformedatdifferenttimes.3.Thephrase"cataclysmicinflux"inthepassageisclosestinmeaningtoA.suddenandviolentarrivalB.steadyandslowaccumulationC.gradualreductionD.mysteriousdisappearance4.Accordingtoparagraph2,whydoscientistsbelievetheLateHeavyBombardmentwasadistincteventratherthanacontinuousprocess?A.Becauselunarrocksshowawidevarietyofages.B.BecausetheMoonhasfewercratersthanEarth.C.BecauseimpactmeltrocksfromtheMoonmostlydatetoaround3.9billionyearsago.D.BecausetheApollomissionsfoundnoevidenceofolderrocks.5.Whichofthefollowingcanbeinferredfromparagraph3abouttheNiceModel?A.ItwasdevelopedbyascientistnamedNice.B.Itsuggeststhatthegiantplanetshaveremainedinfixedpositionssincethesolarsystemformed.C.ItattributestheLHBtothemigrationofgasgiantsdisturbingsmallbodiesintheoutersolarsystem.D.Itprovesthatlifecouldnothaveexistedbefore3.9billionyearsago.6.Theword"sterilizing"inthepassageisclosestinmeaningtoA.cleaningB.destroyingalllifeC.heatingD.preserving7.Whydoestheauthormention"zirconcrystalsfromWesternAustralia"inparagraph4?A.ToprovethattheLateHeavyBombardmentdidnothappen.B.ToshowthatliquidwaterexistedonEarthbeforetheproposedLHBperiod.C.TodemonstratethatAustraliawasoncecoveredbyanocean.D.ToarguethatlifebeganinAustralia.8.Accordingtoparagraph5,whatisamajorcriticismoftheLHBtheorybasedontheApollomissions?A.Thedatingmethodsusedonlunarrocksareinaccurate.B.Thesamplesmightonlyrepresentimpactsinspecificregions,notthewholeMoon.C.TheApollomissionsdidnotcollectenoughsamplestobestatisticallysignificant.D.ThelunarsampleswerecontaminatedbyEarth'satmosphere.9.Lookatthefoursquares[■]thatindicatewherethefollowingsentencecouldbeaddedtothepassage.Consequently,thepeacefulinnersolarsystembecameashootinggallery.Wherewouldthesentencebestfit?A.Thesebodiesweresenthurtlingtowardtheinnersolarsystem,bombardingtheterrestrialplanetsandtheMoon.[■]B.AsJupitermovedinwardslightly,Saturnmovedoutward.[■]Thisshiftingeventuallydisruptedtheorbitsofthousandsofsmallbodieslocatedintheoutersolarsystem,specificallyintheKuiperBeltandthescattereddisk.C.Byanalyzingtheisotopicratiosofelementslikeuraniumandleadwithintheserocks,geochronologistscandeterminetheircrystallizationage.[■]Surprisingly,alargenumberofthesemeltrocksclusteraroundanageof3.9billionyears.D.Fordecades,scientistsbelievedthattherateofasteroidandcometimpactsdeclinedsteadilyaftertheplanetsformedabout4.5billionyearsago.[■]10.Directions:Anintroductorysentenceforabriefsummaryofthepassageisprovidedbelow.CompletethesummarybyselectingtheTHREEanswerchoicesthatexpressthemostimportantideasinthepassage.Somesentencesdonotbelonginthesummarybecausetheyexpressideasthatarenotpresentedinthepassageorareminorideasinthepassage.TheLateHeavyBombardmentwasaperiodofincreasedimpactsintheinnersolarsystemthatissupportedbylunarsamplesbutstilldebated.●●●AnswerChoices:A.TheApollomissionscollectedrocksthatshowedaclusterofimpactdatesaround3.9billionyearsago.B.Themigrationofgiantplanetslikelydestabilizedtheorbitsofcometsandasteroids,sendingthemtowardtheinnerplanets.C.TheEarthhasnoimpactcratersbecauseerosionhasdestroyedthemall.D.TheLHBmayhavedestroyedearlylifeonEarthor,conversely,deliveredthematerialsnecessaryforittobegin.E.ScientistsarecertainthattheLHBlastedforexactly20millionyears.F.Futuremissionstothelunarfarsidearenecessarytoverifyiftheimpactratewasglobalorlocal.Passage2TheRiseofGothicArchitectureInthe12thcentury,aprofoundtransformationbeganinEuropeanarchitecture,markingthetransitionfromtheheavy,fortress-likeRomanesquestyletothesoaring,etherealGothicstyle.ThisshiftoriginatedintheregionsurroundingParis,knownastheÎle-de-France,andwasdrivenbyacombinationoftheologicalaspirations,engineeringinnovations,andadesireforgreaterluminosityinsacredspaces.TheAbbeyChurchofSaint-Denis,overseenbyAbbotSuger,isuniversallyrecognizedasthefirstbuildingtoexhibitallthedefiningcharacteristicsoftheGothicstyle,servingastheprototypeforthegreatcathedralsthatfollowed.OneofthemostsignificantengineeringbreakthroughsoftheGothicerawasthedevelopmentofthepointedarch.UnliketheroundedRomanesquearch,whichexertedstrongdownwardandoutwardthrustsrequiringmassive,thickwallstocontainthem,thepointedarchdirectedtheweightoftheroofmoreverticallydownward.Thisstructuraladjustmentallowedarchitectstobuildtallerarchesandvaultswithoutproportionallythickeningthewalls.Thepointedarchalsoofferedgreaterflexibilityindesign;itcouldbeusedtovaultspacesofdifferentwidths,suchasrectangularbaysinanave,whichwasdifficultwiththesemicirculararch.Thevisualeffectwasoneofupwardmovement,drawingtheeyetowardtheheavensandreinforcingthespiritualsymbolismofthecathedral.Whilethepointedarchaddressedtheverticalthrust,theoutwardthrustremainedachallengethatnecessitatedfurtherinnovation.Thesolutionwastheflyingbuttress,anexternalarchedsupportthattransferredtheweightofthevaultedceilingfromtheupperwallsdowntothegroundoutsidethebuilding.Beforetheflyingbuttress,thewallshadtobesolidandheavytopreventcollapse.Withtheintroductionofthisexternalsupport,thewallscouldbepiercedwithvastopeningsfilledwithstainedglass.Theflyingbuttresswasnotmerelyafunctionaldevice;itbecameadefiningaestheticfeatureofGothiccathedrals,creatingacomplexinterplayofstonepiersandarchesontheexteriorthatseemedtodefygravity.Theliberationofthewallfromitsload-bearingfunctionledtotheexplosionofstainedglassart.InRomanesquechurches,windowsweresmallbecausethewallssupportedtheroof.InGothiccathedrals,thewallsbecamecurtainsofcoloredlight.TheRoseWindow,alarge,circularwindowwithintricatestonetracery,becameahallmarkofthestyle.Thelightfilteringthroughtheblueandredglasswasnotjustdecorative;itwasinterpretedtheologically.AbbotSugerdescribedthislightas"LuxNova"(NewLight),believingthatthephysicalbeautyoftheilluminatedspacecouldtransporttheworshiper'smindtothedivinerealm.Thestainedglassservedadidacticpurposeaswell,illustratingbiblicalstoriesforalargelyilliteratepopulace.TheGothicstylespreadrapidlyacrossEurope,evolvingintoregionalvariations.InEngland,thestyleemphasizedlengthandhorizontallines,asseeninSalisburyCathedral.InGermany,thefocuswasoftenonimmenseheightandasingle,colossaltower,asexemplifiedbyCologneCathedral.Despitethesevariations,thecoreelements—pointedarches,ribbedvaults,flyingbuttresses,andstainedglass—remainedconstant.Theconstructionofthesevaststructuresspannedcenturies,oftenrequiringthelaborofmultiplegenerationsofmasons.Theresultwasnotjustaplaceofworship,butamanifestationofthemedievalworldview,wherefaith,reason,andartisticskillconvergedtocreatea"stonebible"thatstillinspiresawetoday.Questions:1.Theword"ethereal"inthepassageisclosestinmeaningtoA.heavyB.delicateandairyC.ancientD.practical2.Accordingtoparagraph1,theAbbeyChurchofSaint-DenisissignificantbecauseitA.wasthelargestbuildingintheÎle-de-France.B.wasthefirsttocombinealltheelementsofGothicarchitecture.C.wasbuiltusingonlyRomanesquetechniques.D.housedtherelicsofSaint-Denis.3.Whydoestheauthormentionthe"roundedRomanesquearch"inparagraph2?A.Tocontrastitwiththepointedarch'sabilitytodirectweightvertically.B.ToshowthattheRomanesquestylewasmorebeautiful.C.Toexplainwhythepointedarchwasdifficulttobuild.D.Todemonstratethatbotharchesfunctioninexactlythesameway.4.Accordingtoparagraph2,whatadvantagedidthepointedarchofferovertheroundedarchregardingfloorplans?A.Itallowedforwidercircularwindows.B.Itmadethewallsthicker.C.Itcouldbeusedtovaultrectangularspacesofvaryingwidths.D.Itrequiredlessstonetobuild.5.Theword"necessitated"inthepassageisclosestinmeaningtoA.madenecessaryB.preventedC.sloweddownD.encouraged6.Accordingtoparagraph3,howdidtheflyingbuttresschangethedesignofcathedralwalls?A.Itforcedthewallstobecomeeventhickertosupporttheexternalarches.B.Itallowedthewallstobereplacedwithlargestained-glasswindows.C.Iteliminatedtheneedforpointedarches.D.Itmadethewallstheprimarysupportfortheroofagain.7.Thephrase"didacticpurpose"inthepassageisclosestinmeaningtoA.educationalfunctionB.structuralsupportC.aestheticbeautyD.religiousritual8.Accordingtoparagraph4,howdidAbbotSugerinterpretthelightcomingthroughthestainedglass?A.Hesawitasadistractionfromprayer.B.Hebelieveditwasaphysicalrepresentationofdivineillumination.C.Hethoughtitwasmerelyadecorativeaddition.D.Hefeltitmadetheinteriortoodark.9.Whichofthesentencesbelowbestexpressestheessentialinformationinthefollowingsentence?"TheGothicstylespreadrapidlyacrossEurope,evolvingintoregionalvariations."A.GothicarchitecturewasunpopularinEuropebecauseitchangedtoomuch.B.TheGothicstyleremainedexactlythesamethroughoutEurope.C.AsGothicarchitecturemovedtodifferentcountries,itdevelopeduniquelocalcharacteristics.D.RegionalvariationscausedtheGothicstyletodisappearfromEurope.10.Directions:Completethetablebelowbymatchingthearchitecturalfeaturewiththecorrecteffectordescription.Thisquestionisworth3points.ArchitecturalFeatureEffectorDescriptionPointedArch•------FlyingButtress•------StainedGlass•AnswerChoices:A.Directedweightverticallyandallowedfortallerstructures.B.Servedasatextbookfortheilliteratebytellingstories.C.Requiredthewallstobeextremelythickandsolid.D.Transferredoutwardthrusttotheground,allowingforthinnerwalls.E.Wasprimarilyusedfordefenseagainstinvaders.F.Created"LuxNova"orNewLight,symbolizingthedivine.Passage3PheromoneCommunicationinSocialInsectsWhilehumansrelyprimarilyonvisualandauditorysignalstocommunicate,manyanimals,especiallyinsects,dependheavilyonchemicalsignals.Inthecomplexsocietiesofeusocialinsects—ants,bees,wasps,andtermites—communicationisthegluethatholdsthecolonytogether.Theseinsectsutilizeasophisticatedarrayofchemicalscalledpheromonestocoordinateavastrangeofbehaviors,fromforagingandnestdefensetoreproductionandcastedetermination.Pheromonesaresecretedbyglandslocatedthroughouttheinsect'sbodyandaredetectedbysensitivereceptorsontheantennaeofothercolonymembers.Oneofthemostfundamentalfunctionsofpheromonesiscolonyrecognition.Everycolonypossessesauniquechemicalsignature,adistinctblendofhydrocarbonspresentonthecuticleofitsmembers.This"colonyodor"allowsinsectstodistinguishnestmatesfromnon-nestmates.Whenanantencountersanotherinsect,itwilltaptheother'sbodywithitsantennaetosamplethesechemicals.Ifthesignaturematches,theantwilltreattheotherasasister,sharingfoodandcooperating.Ifthesignaturedoesnotmatch,theintruderistreatedasanenemyandattacked.Thismechanismiscrucialforprotectingthecolony'sresourcesandensuringthataltruisticbehaviors,suchascaringforthebrood,aredirectedonlytowardkin.Reproductivecontrolinsocialinsectcoloniesisalsotightlyregulatedbypheromones.Inhoneybeehives,forexample,thequeenproducesacomplexsetofchemicalsknownas"queensubstance."Thispheromoneblendservesmultiplepurposes:itinhibitsthedevelopmentofovariesinworkerbees,effectivelysterilizingthem;itsuppressestheurgeofworkerstorearnewqueens;anditattractsdrones(malebees)duringmatingflights.Thepresenceofthequeenpheromoneensuresthatthecolonymaintainsasinglereproductiveindividual,preservingthesocialhierarchy.Ifthequeendiesorthepheromoneconcentrationdropsbelowacertainthreshold,theworkersdetecttheabsencealmostimmediatelyandbegintheprocessofrearingasuccessorqueenfromexistinglarvae.Foragingefficiencyisanotherareawherepheromonesplayacriticalrole.Manyantspeciesemploytrailpheromonestoguidenestmatestofoodsources.Whenascoutantdiscoversarichfoodsource,itreturnstothecolony,layingdownacontinuoustrailofchemicaldropletsfromitsabdomenasitmoves.Insidethenest,theantperformsa"dances"orusestactilesignalstorecruitotherworkers.Therecruitedantsfollowthechemicaltrailtothefood.Asmoreantstravelthetrailandreturnwithfood,theyreinforcethescentbyaddingtheirownpheromones.However,pheromonesarevolatileandevaporateovertime.Oncethefoodsourceisexhausted,antsstopreturningandreinforcingthetrail,causingthescenttofadeandtheforagingefforttocease.Thiscreatesadynamic,self-organizingsystemthatallowsthecolonytoadaptquicklytochangingenvironmentalconditionswithoutcentraldirection.Alarmpheromonesareyetanothervitalclassofchemicalsignals.Thesearereleasedwhenaninsectisinjuredorperceivesathreattothecolony.Inmanybeespecies,aguardbeethatstingsanintruderwillreleaseanalarmpheromonethatattractsotherbeestothesiteandincitesthemtoattack.Thechemicalcompositionofalarmpheromonesisoftenhighlyvolatile,ensuringrapiddispersalthroughtheairtoalertdefenders.Whileeffectiveforcolonydefense,thisresponsecanbedangerousfortheinsectsthemselves,asthefrenzycansometimesleadtomassstingingandthedeathofmanyworkers.Nevertheless,thesurvivalofthecolonydependsonthisrapidandaggressiveresponsetothreats.Thestudyofinsectpheromoneshasnotonlyadvancedourunderstandingofanimalbehaviorbuthasalsofoundpracticalapplications.Pestmanagementstrategiesoftenutilizesyntheticpheromonestotrapharmfulinsectsordisrupttheirmatingcycles.Forinstance,farmersusepheromonetrapstomonitorthepopulationofcrop-damagingmoths,andinsomecases,theysaturateanareawithsyntheticfemalesexpheromonestoconfusemalesandpreventthemfromfindingmates.Byhijackingtheinsect'sowncommunicationsystem,humanscancontrolpestpopulationsinanenvironmentallyfriendlymanner,reducingtheneedforbroad-spectruminsecticides.Questions:1.Theword"utilize"inthepassageisclosestinmeaningtoA.ignoreB.useC.createD.destroy2.Accordingtoparagraph2,whatistheprimaryfunctionofthe"colonyodor"?A.Tohelpinsectsfindfoodsources.B.Todistinguishbetweenmembersofthesamecolonyandstrangers.C.Toattractmates.D.Tomarkthelocationofthenest.3.Theword"sterilizing"inthepassageisclosestinmeaningtoA.cleaningB.protectingC.makingunabletoreproduceD.feeding4.Accordingtoparagraph3,whathappenstoworkerbeesifthequeenpheromoneisnolongerdetected?A.Theyleavethecolonytostartnewhives.B.Theybegintolayeggsimmediately.C.Theystartfeedingtheexistingqueenmore.D.Theyinitiatetherearingofanewqueen.5.Howdotrailpheromonesensurethatantsdonotwastetimeforagingatexhaustedfoodsources?A.Theantsphysicallyblockthepathtotheoldfood.B.Thescoutantreturnstoguidethemaway.C.Thepheromonetrailevaporateswhenitisnotreinforcedbyreturningants.D.Theantsleavea"danger"pheromoneontheemptyfoodsource.6.Whydoestheauthormentionthatalarmpheromonesare"highlyvolatile"?A.Toexplainwhytheysmellbadtohumans.B.Toexplainhowtheycanbestoredforlongperiods.C.Toexplainwhytheyaredifficulttoproduce.D.Toexplainhowtheyquicklyspreadthroughtheairtoalertotherinsects.7.Theword"incites"inthepassageisclosestinmeaningtoA.preventsB.calmsC.stirsupD.questions8.Accordingtoparagraph6,howaresyntheticpheromonesusedinagriculture?A.Tomakecropsgrowfaster.B.Tokillinsectsdirectlyuponcontact.C.Toconfuseinsectmatingpatternsormonitorpopulations.D.Toimprovetheflavoroffruitsandvegetables.9.Whichofthefollowingcanbeinferredaboutpheromonesfromthepassage?A.Theyareusedbyallanimals,notjustinsects.B.Theyarealwayseffectiveoververylongdistances.C.Theycanservemultiplefunctionsdependingonthecontextandthechemical.D.Theyaretheonlywayinsectscansensetheirenvironment.10.Lookatthefoursquares[■]thatindicatewherethefollowingsentencecouldbeaddedtothepassage.Thisfeedbackloopallowsthecolonytofocusitsworkforceonthemostprofitableresources.Wherewouldthesentencebestfit?A.Whenascoutantdiscoversarichfoodsource,itreturnstothecolony,layingdownacontinuoustrailofchemicaldropletsfromitsabdomenasitmoves.[■]B.Therecruitedantsfollowthechemicaltrailtothefood.Asmoreantstravelthetrailandreturnwithfood,theyreinforcethescentbyaddingtheirownpheromones.[■]C.However,pheromonesarevolatileandevaporateovertime.Oncethefoodsourceisexhausted,antsstopreturningand[■]reinforcingthetrail,causingthescenttofadeandtheforagingefforttocease.D.Thiscreatesadynamic,self-organizingsystemthatallowsthecolonytoadaptquicklytochangingenvironmentalconditionswithoutcentraldirection.[■]Passage4TheSunkCostEffectinEconomicDecisionMakingInclassicaleconomictheory,decision-makersareassumedtoberationalagents.Thismeansthatwhenmakingchoices,individualsshouldweighfuturecostsandbenefitsobjectively,ignoringpastinvestmentsthatcannotberecovered.Thesepast,irretrievableinvestmentsareknownas"sunkcosts."Rationalbehaviordictatesthatsunkcostsshouldbeirrelevanttocurrentdecision-making;onlythemarginalcostsandbenefitsofthefutureoptionsshouldmatter.However,decadesofresearchinbehavioraleconomicsandpsychologyhavedemonstratedthathumansconsistentlyfallpreytothe"sunkcosteffect"(or"sunkcostfallacy"),allowingpastinvestmentstoundulyinfluencetheirfuturedecisions.Thesunkcosteffectmanifestswhenpeoplecontinueabehaviororendeavorasaresultofpreviouslyinvestedresources(time,money,oreffort)evenwhenthefuturecostsoutweighthebenefits.Forexample,considerapersonwhobuysanon-refundabletickettoamovie.Onthedayoftheshow,theyfeelillandtheweatheristerrible.Arationalagentwouldstayhome,becausethecostofthetickethasalreadybeenincurred(itissunk)andtheutilityofstayinghome(comfort,health)ishigherthantheutilityofgoingtothemovie.However,mostpeoplewouldchoosetogotothemovie,thinking,"Ialreadypaidforit,soIshouldn'twastethemoney."Theyareattemptingtojustifythepastexpenditurebyincurringadditionaldiscomfort.Whydohumansviolatetherationalchoicemodelsopredictably?Severalpsychologicalmechanismscontributetothisbias.Oneprominentexplanationislossaversion,aconceptcentraltoProspectTheorydevelopedbyDanielKahnemanandAmosTversky.Peopletendtofeelthepainofalossabouttwiceasintenselyasthepleasureofanequivalentgain.Inthecontextofsunkcosts,abandoningaprojectfeelslikeadmittingatotallossoftheinvestment.Continuingwiththeproject,evenifitisfailing,allowstheindividualtomaintaintheillusionthattheinvestmentmightstillyieldareturn,therebyavoidingtheimmediatepsychologicalpainofrealizingaloss.Theexpectedutilitycalculationisskewedbythisemotionalweighting.Anotherfactoristhedesiretoappearconsistentandtonotbeseenaswasteful.Inmanycultures,perseveranceisviewedasavirtue,while"givingup"isassociatedwithfailureorincompetence.Thissocialpressurecancompelindividualsandorganizationstothrowgoodmoneyafterbad.Incorporatesettings,thisisoftenreferredtoas"escalationofcommitment."Managersmaycontinuefundingafailingprojecttoavoidtheembarrassmentofadmittingthattheirinitialdecisionwasamistake.Thisisexacerbatedbyorganizationalinertiaandthefactthatthedecision-makerwhoinitiatedtheprojectisoftentheoneevaluatingitscontinuation,creatingaconflictofinterest.Thesunkcosteffectisnotlimitedtofinancialdecisions;itpermeatesvariousaspectsoflife.Inrelationships,individualsmaystayinunhappypartnershipsbecauseofthetimeandemotiontheyhavealreadyinvested,aphenomenonsometimescalledthe"sunkcostoflove."Inacademia,researchersmaypersistwithafailinglineofinquirybecauseoftheyearsspenttraininginaspecificsubfield.Evengovernmentsexhibitthisbias,continuingtofundmilitaryprojectsorinfrastructuredevelopmentsthatarevastlyoverbudgetandbehindschedule,simplybecausesomuchhasalreadybeenspent.Tomitigatethesunkcosteffect,expertsrecommendstrategiesthatforcedecision-makerstofocusonthefuture.Onetechniqueistoshifttheperspective:imagineyouhadnotmadethepastinvestmentandareevaluatingtheprojectforthefirsttimetoday.Wouldyouinvestinitnow?Iftheanswerisno,theprojectshouldlikelybeabandoned.Anotherapproachistohavedifferentindividualsmaketheinitialinvestmentdecisionandthecontinuationdecision,removingtheegoandtheneedforself-justificationfromtheequation.Recognizingthecognitivebiasisthefirststeptowardovercomingit,butevenawarenessdoesnotguaranteeimmunityagainstthepowerfuldrivetoavoidwaste.Questions:1.Theword"irretrievable"inthepassageisclosestinmeaningtoA.profitableB.recoverableC.impossibletogetbackD.future2.Accordingtoparagraph2,whyisthedecisio