《国际物流英语》-第3章

Thegrowthoftheamountoffreightbeingtradedaswellasagreatvarietyoforiginsanddestinationspromotestheimportanceofinternationaltransportationasafundamentalelementsupportingtheglobaleconomy.Internationaltransportationsystemshavebeenunderincreasingpressurestosupportadditionaldemandsinvolumeanddistancecarried.Thiscouldnothaveoccurredwithoutconsiderabletechnicalimprovementspermittingtotransportlargerquantitiesofpassengersandfreight,andthismorequicklyandmoreefficiently.Fewothertechnicalimprovementsthancontainerizationhavecontributedtothisenvironmentofgrowingmobilityoffreight.Sincecontainersandtheirintermodaltransportsystemsimprovetheefficiencyofglobaldistribution,agrowingshareofgeneralcargomovinggloballyiscontainerized.Consequently,transportationisoftenreferredasanenablingfactorthatisnotnecessarilythecauseofinternationaltrade,butameanoverwhichglobalizationcouldnothaveoccurredwithout.PartⅠInternationalTransportation下一页返回Acommondevelopmentproblemistheinabilityofinternationaltransportationinfrastructurestosupportflows,underminingaccesstotheglobalmarketandthebenefitsthatcanbederivedfrominternationaltrade.Internationaltraderequiresdistributioninfrastructuresthatcansupporttradebetweenseveralpartners.Threecomponentsofinternationaltransportationfacilitatetrade:●Transportationinfrastructureconcernsphysicalinfrastructuressuchasterminals,vehiclesandnetworks.Efficienciesordeficienciesintransportinfrastructureswilleitherpromoteorinhibitinternationaltrade.●Transportationservicesconcernsthecomplexsetofservicesinvolvedintheinternationalcirculationofpassengersandfreight.Itincludesactivitiessuchasdistribution,logistics,finance,insuranceandmarketing.PartⅠInternationalTransportation上一页下一页返回●Transactionalenvironmentconcernsthecomplexlegal,political,financialandculturalsettinginwhichinternationaltransportsystemsoperate.Itincludesaspectssuchasexchangerates,regulations,quotasandtariffs,butalsoconsumerpreferences.Abouthalfoftheglobaltradetakesplacebetweenlocationsofmorethan3,000kmapart.Becauseoftheinvolvedgeographicalscale,mostinternationalfreightmovementsinvolveseveralmodes,especiallywhenoriginsanddestinationsarefarapart.Transportchainsmustthusbeestablishedtoservicetheseflowswhichreinforcetheimportanceofintermodaltransportationmodesandterminalsatstrategiclocations.Amongthenumeroustransportmodes,twoarespecificallyconcernedwithinternationaltrade:PartⅠInternationalTransportation上一页下一页返回●PortsandMaritimeShipping.Theimportanceofmaritimetransportationinglobalfreighttradeinunmistakable,particularlyintermsoftonnageasithandlesabout90%oftheglobal.Thus,globalizationistherealmofmaritimeshipping,withcontainerizedshippingattheforefrontoftheprocess.Theglobalmaritimetransportsystemiscomposedofaseriesofmajorgatewaysgrantingaccesstomajorproductionandconsumptionregions.Betweenthosegatewaysaremajorhubsactingaspointsofinterconnectionandtransshipmentbetweensystemsofmaritimecirculation.●AirportsandAirTransport.Althoughintermstonnageairtransportationcarriesaninsignificantamountoffreight(0.2%oftotaltonnage)comparedwithmaritimetransportation,itsimportanceintermsofthetotalvalueismuchmoresignificant;about15%.PartⅠInternationalTransportation上一页下一页返回Internationalairfreightisabout70timesmorevaluablethanitsmaritimecounterpartandabout30timesmorevaluablethanfreightcarriedoverland,whichislinkedwiththetypesofgoodsittransports(e.g.electronics).Thelocationoffreightairportscorrespondtohightechnologymanufacturingclustersaswellasintermediarylocationswherefreightplanesarerefueledand/orcargoistransshipped.Roadandrailwaymodestendtooccupyamoremarginalportionofinternationaltransportationsincetheyareaboveallmodesfornationalorregionaltransportservices.Theirimportanceisfocusedontheirroleinthe“firstandlastmiles”ofglobaldistribution.Freightismainlybroughttoportandairportterminalsbytruckingorrail.Therearehowevernotableexceptionsintheroleofoverlandtransportationininternationaltrade.AsubstantialshareoftheNAFTAtradebetweenCanada,UnitedStatesandMexicoissupportedbytrucking,aswellaslargeshareoftheWesternEuropeantrade.PartⅠInternationalTransportation上一页下一页返回Inspiteofthis,theseexchangesareatprioriregionalbydefinition,althoughintermodaltransportationconfersamorecomplexsettingintheinterpretationoftheseflows.EconomicdevelopmentinPacificAsiaandinChinainparticular,hasbeenthedominantfactorbehindthegrowthofinternationaltransportationinrecentyears.Sincethetradingdistancesinvolvedareoftenconsiderable,thishasresultedinincreasingdemandsonthemaritimeshippingindustryandonportactivities.Asitsindustrialandmanufacturingactivitiesdevelop,Chinaisimportinggrowingquantitiesofrawmaterialsandenergyandexportinggrowingquantitiesofmanufacturedgoods.Theoutcomehasbeenasurgeindemandsforlongdistanceinternationaltransportation.TheportsinthePearlRiverdeltainGuangdongprovincenowhandlealmostasmanycontainersasalltheportsintheUnitedStatescombined…PartⅠInternationalTransportation上一页返回“Whosoevercommandstheseacommandstrade;whosoevercommandsthetradeoftheworldcommandstherichesoftheworld,andconsequentlytheworlditself”.Thebasicfeaturesofinternationaltransportationareconstrainedbyitsgeography,whichinvolvesgeopoliticalconsiderations.Inthepastmanywarshavebeenstartedtogaincontrolovertraderoutes,togaincontrolovermineralorenergydeposits,togaincolonialcontroloveruntappedregions,ortosettraderoutesviaexistingoceanports.Thishasbeenparticularlyimportantformaritimenationsseekingtosupporttheexistingtrade,expanditandsecureitscirculation.Throughhistory,passagesweresubjectedtomanyconflictsthatgenerallyaimedtoassureacontrolofastrategiclocation.Internationaltransportinfrastructures,suchasports,airportsandcanalswerealsosubjectedtogeopoliticalconsiderationsastheycanprovideaccesstostrategicresourcesorkeymarkets.Thegeo-strategyofinternationaltransportationcanbeconsideredfromfiveperspectives:PartⅡTheGeo-strategyofInternationalTransportation下一页返回●Conquest.Transporttechnologywasinitiallyameantoacquireandconqueroceans,territoriesandresources.Europeanpowerswerethefirsttoimprovesignificantlythemaritimetechnologyintermsofspeedandoffense/defensecapacityandwerethusabletoestablishmaritimetradingroadsandcoloniesallovertheworld.Therailroadwasalsoameantoachieveterritorialconquest,notablyinNorthAmerica(nationbuilding)andinAfrica(colonialism).●Competition.Internationaltransportationisameantocompeteontheglobaleconomy.Traditionally,throughcabotageregulations,manynationsreservedtherighttocarrynationalpassengersandfreighttonationaltransportcompanies.Althoughtheseregulationsarestillprevalentforair(airfreedoms)andmaritimetransportation(JonesAct),competitionhasbecomeaprevalentforceinshapingmoderntransportationsystems.PartⅡTheGeo-strategyofInternationalTransportation上一页下一页返回Forseveralcountries,thedevelopmentoftheirinternationaltransportsystemhasfavoredexportsandtransportrelatedactivitiessuchasshipbuilding,tradeandinsurance.SeveralnewlyestablishedmaritimenationsinEastAsia,suchasSouthKorea,TaiwanandnowChinahavegrownusingthisstrategy.Anewformofinternationaltransportcompetitionisrelatedtotheusageofflagsofconveniencewhereamaritimecompanycansignificantlyreduceitscostsbyusingthefiscaladvantagesofanothercountry.●Jurisdiction.Allsovereignnationshavethejurisdictionovertheirterritories,includinginternalwaterbodiessuchaslakesandriversiftheydonotactasaboundarywithanothernation.Anyinternationaltransportationentering,exitingorgoingthroughthisjurisdictionissubjectedtonationalregulations.Thisjurisdictionalsoappliestothemaritimesegment.PartⅡTheGeo-strategyofInternationalTransportation上一页下一页返回TheUnitedNationsConventionontheLawoftheSeaTerritorialwatersin1982formallydefineddifferentlevelsofjurisdictionanationcanhaveoveritsadjacentsea.Theterritorialsea,abufferof12nauticalmiles(22km)fromthecoastisconsideredassovereignterritory,bothfortheaboveairspaceandtheseabed.Foreignshipsarehoweverallowedpassage,butbydoingsobeingsubjectedtonationalregulations.ThisjurisdictionispartiallyextendedtotheExclusiveEconomicZone(EEZ)overwhichastatehasrightstotheexplorationanduseofmarineresources(e.g.fishing,oilextraction).Byconvention,itextentsto200nauticalmiles(370km)butastatecannotpreventfreepassagethroughtheEEZ.●Cooperation.Althoughinternationaltransportationmostlyinvolvescompetition,commoninterestsobviouslyfavoragreementsoverdifferentaspectsinvolvingaccesstoinfrastructuresorsettingstandards.PartⅡTheGeo-strategyofInternationalTransportation上一页下一页返回By1792,mostcountriesalongtheRhineagreedtofreenavigation.CanadaandtheUnitedStatesstartedfrom1871alongprocessofnegotiationandcommonmanagementoftheSt.LawrenceRiverthatwouldeventuallyleadtothedevelopmentoftheSt.LawrenceSeawayin1954.InternationaltradewithinEuropewasenhancedbytheadoptionofastandardoverrailgauges(1.435meters).Internationalairtransportationissubjectedtoregulationsoversecurity,accesstospecificgateways(airfreedoms)andprices.Furthermore,theemergenceofeconomicblocssuchastheEuropeanUnionandtheNorthAmericanFreeTradeAgreementleansoncommonrulesabouttransportstandardsandprices.Theemergenceofcontinentallandbridges,suchastheNorthernEast-Westfreightcorridorrepresentsanewandcomplexformofcollaboration.PartⅡTheGeo-strategyofInternationalTransportation上一页下一页返回●Control.Thecontrolofstrategicplacesisalsoanimportantpartofinternationaltransportationmainlytoreducevulnerabilitytodisruptions.Astheglobaleconomybecomesmoreinterdependent,economiesarebecomingvulnerabletosuppliesofrawmaterials,energyandfood.Forinstance,astheUnitedStatesbecamemoredependentonexternalsuppliesofoil,itsforeignpolicyshiftedatkeepinganeyeonstrategiclocationsinoiltrade,dominantlyintheMiddleEast.Maritimetransportationisthedominantpurveyorofinternationalfreightdistributionandevolvesoveraglobalmaritimespace.Thisspacehasitsownconstrainssuchastheprofileofcontinentalmassesandtheimperativesitcreates.Internationalmaritimeroutesarethusforcedtopassthroughspecificlocationscorrespondingtopassages,capesandstraits.TheseroutesaregenerallylocatedbetweenmajorindustrialzonessuchasWesternEurope,NorthAmericaandEastAsia(notablyJapanandChina).PartⅡTheGeo-strategyofInternationalTransportation上一页下一页返回Also,majorroutesinvolveflowsofrawmaterials,namelyminerals,somefoodproducts(coffee,cocoaandsugar),andmostimportantlypetroleum,fromdevelopingcountriestodevelopedcountries.Themostimportantstrategicpassagestendtobeshallowandnarrow,impairingnavigation.Manyofthemarenexttopoliticallyunstableorconflictedcountries,increasingtheriskofcompromisingtheiraccessanduse,suchaswithpiracy.PartⅡTheGeo-strategyofInternationalTransportation上一页返回WritingSkillⅠAnEmailforEstablishingBusinessRelationshipfromSeller下一页返回WritingSkillⅠAnEmailforEstablishingBusinessRelationshipfromSeller上一页返回Astherangeofproductionexpanded,transportsystemsadaptedtothenewoperationalrealitiesinlocal,regionalandinternationalfreightdistribution.Freighttransportationhasconsequentlytakenanincreasinglyimportantrolewithincommoditychains.Amongthemostimportantfactors:●Theimprovementintransportefficiencyfacilitatedanexpandedterritorialrangetocommoditychains.●Areductionoftelecommunicationcosts,enablingcorporationstoestablishabetterlevelofcontrolovertheircommoditychains.●Technologicalimprovements,notablyforintermodaltransportation,enabledamoreefficientcontinuitybetweendifferenttransportmodes(especiallyland/maritime)andthuswithincommoditychains.PartⅢFreightTransportandCommodityChains下一页返回Theresultshavebeenanimprovedvelocityoffreight,adecreaseofthefrictionofdistanceandaspatialsegregationofproduction.Thisprocessisstronglyimbeddedwiththecapacityandefficiencyofinternationalandregionaltransportationsystems,especiallymaritimeandlandroutes.Itisbecomingrarefortheproductionstagesofagoodtooccuratthesamelocation.Consequently,thegeographyofcommoditychainsisintegratedtothegeographyoftransportsystems.Amongthemainsectorsofintegrationbetweentransportationandcommoditychainsare:●AgriculturalCommodityChains.Theyincludeasequenceoffertilizersandequipmentasinputsandcereal,vegetableandanimalproductionasoutputs.Severaltransportationmodesareusedforthisproductionsystem,includingrailcars,trucksandgrainships.Sincemanyfoodproductsareperishable,modesoftenhavetobeadaptedtothesespecificconstraints.PartⅢFreightTransportandCommodityChains上一页下一页返回Agriculturalshipmentstendtobehighlyseasonalwiththeebbandflowsofharvestseasons.Portsareplayinganimportantroleaspointsofwarehousingandtransshipmentofagriculturalcommoditiessuchasgrain.Agrowingshareoftheinternationaltransportationofgrainisgettingcontainerized.In2007,100milliontonsofgrainswerecarriedonbulkshipswhileanadditional10milliontonswascarriedbycontainer.Duetoweightlimitations,the20footercontainerappearsmoresuitableastheycanhandleafull20tonsloadwhilebiggercontainers,suchasthe40footer,arelimitedtoamaximalloadof28tons.●EnergyCommodityChains.Includethetransportoffuels(oil,coal,naturalgas,etc.)fromwheretheyareextractedtowheretheyaretransformedandfinallyconsumed.Theyarelinkedtomassiveflowsofbulkrawmaterials,notablybyrailwayandmaritimemodes,butalsobypipelinewhenpossible.PartⅢFreightTransportandCommodityChains上一页下一页返回Theytendtobeverystableandconsistentcommoditychainssinceaconstantenergysupplyisrequiredwithsomeseasonalvariations.●MetalCommodityChains.Similartoenergycommoditychains,thesesystemsincludethetransportofmineralsfromextractionsites,butalsoofmetalstowardstheindustrialsectorsusingthemsuchasshipbuilding,carmaking,constructionmaterials,etc.●ChemicalCommodityChains.Includeseveralbranchessuchaspetrochemicalsandfertilizers.Thiscommoditychainhaslinkageswiththeenergyandagriculturalsectors,sinceitisatthesametimeacustomerandasupplier.●WoodandPaperCommodityChains.Includecollectionovervastforestzones,namelyCanada,NorthernEurope,SouthAmericaandSoutheastAsia,towardsproductioncentersofpulpandpaperandthentoconsumers.PartⅢFreightTransportandCommodityChains上一页下一页返回●ConstructionIndustry.Impliesmovementsofmaterialssuchascement,sand,bricksandlumber,manyofwhicharelocalinscale.●ManufacturingIndustry.Involvesamuchdiversifiedsetofmovementsoffinishedandsemi-finishedgoodsbetweenseveraloriginsanddestinations.Thesemovementswillberelatedtotheleveloffunctionalandgeographicalspecializationofeachmanufacturingsector.Suchflowsareincreasinglycontainerized.Mostcommoditychainsarelinkedtoregionaltransportsystems,butwithglobalization,internationaltransportationaccountsforagrowingshareofflowswithinproductionsystems.Theusageofresources,partsandsemi-finishedgoodsbycommoditychainsisanindicationofthetypeoffreightbeingtransported.Consequently,transportsystemsmustadapttoanswertheneedsofcommoditychains,whichforcealevelofdiversification.PartⅢFreightTransportandCommodityChains上一页下一页返回Withinacommoditychain,freighttransportservicescanbecategorizedby:●ManagementofShipments.Referstocargotransportedbytheowner,themanufacturerorbyathirdparty.Thetendencyhasbeenforcorporationstosub-contracttheirfreightoperationstospecializedproviderswhoprovidemoreefficientandcosteffectiveservices.●GeographicalCoverage.Impliesawidevarietyofscalesrangingfromintercontinental,withineconomicblocs,national,regionalorlocal.Eachofthesescalesofteninvolvesspecificmodesoftransportservicesandtheuseofspecificterminals.●TimeConstraint.Freightservicescanhaveatimeelementrangingfromexpress,wheretimeisessential,tothelowestcostpossible,wheretimeissecondary.Thereisalsoadirectrelationshipbetweentransporttimeandthelevelofinventorythathastobemaintainedinthesupplychain.PartⅢFreightTransportandCommodityChains上一页下一页返回Theshorterthetime,thelowertheinventorylevel,whichcanresultinsignificantsavings.●ConsignmentSize.Dependingonthenatureofproduction,consignmentscanbecarriedinfullloads,partialloads(lessthantruckload;LTL),asgeneralcargo,ascontainerloadsorasparcels.●CargoType.Unitizedcargo(containers,boxesorpallets)orbulkcargorequiresdedicatedvehicles,vesselsandtransshipmentandstorageinfrastructures.●Mode.Cargocanbecarriedonasinglemode(sea,rail,roadorair)orinacombinationofmodesthroughintermodaltransportation.●ColdChain.Atemperaturecontrolledsupplychainlinkedtothematerial,equipmentandproceduresusedtomaintainspecificcargoshipmentswithinanappropriatetemperaturerange.Oftenrelatestothedistributionoffoodandpharmaceuticalproducts.PartⅢFreightTransportandCommodityChains上一页下一页返回Theglobalizationoftheproductionisalsoconcomitantofanenvironmentwherejust-in-time(JIT)andtensefluxesarebecomingthenorminproductionanddistributionsystems.Internationaltransportationisshiftingtomeettheincreasingneedsoforganizingandmanagingitsflowsthroughlogistics.Inspiteofthediversityoftransportservicessupportedvariouscommoditychains;containerizationisadaptableenoughtocopewithavarietyofcargoandtimeconstraints.PartⅢFreightTransportandCommodityChains上一页返回TherecentresurgenceininternationaltradehasprovidedU.S.firmswithamajoropportunitytoexpandsalesthroughexporting.Thisisparticularlytrueforsmallandmediumsizedfirmswhichhavetraditionallylimitedtheirmarketingeffortstodomesticmarkets.However,inordertotakeadvantageofexpandingforeigntrade,infrequentandsmallvolumeproducersmustfirstdispelamajormythassociatedwithdistributingproductstoforeigncustomers.Thismythisthatthecomplexitiesofinternationaldistributionmakeitverydifficultforsmallerfirmstotakeadvantageofexpandingexports.Soitseemsthatmakingarrangementsforinlandandport-to-portmovements,combinedwithamyriadofdocuments,termsofsale,andgovernmentrequirementsisaformidablebarriertodevelopingexportsales.Onesolutiontotheproblemofdistributioncomplexitiesistodevelopanexternalpartnershipwithathirdpartyfacilitatorspecializinginsmallvolumemovementsandinternationaldocumentation.PartⅣSolvingInternationalTransportationProblems下一页返回Mostfirmsenteringworldmarketsbeginonalimitedscaleandcannotaffordtoinvestheavilyinaseparateinternaldepartmentwiththerequiredexpertisetohandletransportationarrangementsanddocumentationassociatedwithexporting.Evenfirmsprojectinglargevolumemovementscanencounterseriousproblemsinorganizingforforeigndistribution.However,understandingwhatisinvolvedwithinternationalmovementsandinpartnershipwithathirdpartyintermediary,mostcompaniescaneffectivelydevelopexportcapabilities.Thefollowingfirstexaminesthesegmentsorcomponentsofaninternationalmovementalongwiththedocumentationrequiredtocompletethemove.Second,therolesplayedbytwoexternalthirdparties,internationalfreightforwardersandnon-vessel-owningcommoncarriers,ininternationaldistributionareexamined.Byunderstandingtherequirementsassociatedwithanexportmovement,anappreciationcanbedevelopedforhowapartnershipwithathirdpartyintermediarycanmakeexportingareality.PartⅣSolvingInternationalTransportationProblems上一页下一页返回Internationaldistributioniscomplicatedbythefactthattransportationfromapointoforigintoultimatedestinationinvolvesdecisionsorcomponentsnotassociatedwithadomesticmove.Thebasiccomponentsofaninternationalmovementinclude:●PortSelection-Domesticandforeignportsareselectedbasedonproximitytooriginanddestination,landrouting,oceanandaircarrierservicesavailable,portcosts(e.g.wharf-ageandhandling),andanydelayswhichmayoccurattheport.●InlandMovement(Domesticorigintoport)-Atransportationmodeandcarriermustbeselectedandtheroutingfromplanttoapredeterminedportestablished.●PorttoPortCarrierSelection-FormovementsotherthantoCanadaorMexico,thechoiceofoverseasmodesislimitedtooceancarriageandairfreight.Selectionofamodeisbasicallyafunctionofrates,timeintransit,andneedsofthecustomer.PartⅣSolving