跨文化商务沟通（英文版第6版）课件 第5章 语言

Chapter5:

Language

Copyright©2014PearsonEducation,Inc.2TopicsHigh-andLow-contextLanguageLanguageDiversityInformalandAlternativeLanguagesFormsofVerbalInteractionLinearandNonlinearLanguageVocabularyEquivalenceParablesandProverbsConversationTaboosTranslationProblemsInterpreterUseHostLanguageThoughtLanguageandCultureInteractionCopyright©2014PearsonEducation,Inc.3

Sociolinguistics

–theeffectsofsocialandculturaldifferencesuponalanguage.Accent,phrasing,andwordusageareassociatedwithclassdifferencesinasociety.Copyright©2014PearsonEducation,Inc.4High-ContextandLow-ContextCulturesHighContextEstablishsocialtrustfirstValuepersonalrelationsandgoodwillAgreementbygeneraltrustNegotiationsslowandritualisticLowContextGetdowntobusinessfirstValueexpertiseandperformanceAgreementbyspecific,legalisticcontractNegotiatesasefficientlyaspossibleAdaptedfromHall(1976)ChineseKoreanJapaneseArabGreekSpanishItalianEnglishNorthAmericanSwissGermanCopyright©2014PearsonEducation,Inc.5High-ContextLanguageNonverbal;culturalaspectsareimportantLanguagetransmitslittleofexplicitmessageExample:JapaneselanguageExample:ChineselanguageRestrictedcode-speechcodingsystemofhigh-contextlanguages;spokenstatementreflectsthesocialrelationshipCopyright©2014PearsonEducation,Inc.6Low-ContextLanguageMessageisexplicitMaybegiveninmorethanonewaytoassureunderstandingVerydirectandverbalExample:U.S.English(high-contextlanguageviewedasawasteoftime)Example:SpanishlanguageElaboratedcode-speechcodingsystemoflow-contextlanguages;verbalelaborationisnecessaryduetofewsharedassumptionsCopyright©2014PearsonEducation,Inc.7LanguageDiversityProblemsDiversityofdialectsandaccentswithinalanguage(TheU.S.hasover140languagesanddialects;in14percentofhomesanativelanguageotherthanEnglishisspoken.)Wordmeanings,pronunciations,andaccentsevenamongpeoplewhospeakthesamelanguageForeignerswhospeaktheirnativelanguageonthejoborinthepresenceofmembersofthehomecountryCopyright©2014PearsonEducation,Inc.8LanguageofNumbersCommasanddecimalpointsinterchanged8.642inEuropeequals8,642inU.S.34,5%inEuropeequals34.5%inU.S.Abillion(1,000,000,000)intheU.S.isamilliardinRussia,Italy,andTurkeyAtrillionintheU.S.isabillioninGermany,Austria,TheNetherlands,Hungary,Sweden,Denmark,Norway,Finland,Spain,Portugal,Serbia,Croatia,andSouthAmericancountriesCrosszerosandsevensCopyright©2014PearsonEducation,Inc.9InformalandAlternativeLanguagesInformallanguage–takestheformofslang,colloquialisms,andjargonintheUnitedStates.Alternativelanguages–givecertaingroupsasenseofidentityandcohesiveness;ArgotandCantarealternativelanguages.Copyright©2014PearsonEducation,Inc.10InformalandAlternativeLanguagesSlang-Idioms(acceptedexpressionshavingmeaningsotherthantheliteral)andotherinformallanguage.Ex:bottomlineColloquialisms-Informalwords/phrasesoftenassociatedwithcertainregionsofthecountry.Ex:y’all(youall),pop(soda)Copyright©2014PearsonEducation,Inc.11SlangExpressionsasleepattheswitch:inattentivebackoff:moderateone’sstandorspeedifdrivingblockbuster:greatsuccesscutthroat:harsheatone’swords:retractgarbage:nonsensegetofftheground:startsuccessfullyhavesomeone’snumber:knowthetruthaboutsomeoneCopyright©2014PearsonEducation,Inc.12Euphemisms

-InoffensiveexpressionsusedinplaceofoffensivewordsorthosewithnegativeconnotationsEx:seniorcitizensforoldpeopleJargon

-Technicalterminologyusedwithinspecializedgroups–Ex:byteAcronyms-Wordsformedfromtheinitiallettersorgroupsoflettersofwordsinaphraseandpronouncedasoneword

Ex:RAMCopyright©2014PearsonEducation,Inc.13AlternativeLanguagesArgot–avocabularyusedbynonprofessional,noncriminalgroups(truckdrivers,circusworkers)Cant–thevocabularyofundesirableco-cultures(drugdealers,murderers,gangs,prostitutes)Ebonics–languageofAfricanAmericans–(badmeaningbest)Copyright©2014PearsonEducation,Inc.14FormsofVerbalInteractionRepartee-Conversationinwhichpartiestaketurnsspeaking/listeningforshortperiods.Verbaldueling-Likegamesmanship;thepurposeistoseewhocangaindominanceinafriendlydebate.Copyright©2014PearsonEducation,Inc.15Ritualconversation-Involvesstandardrepliesandcommentsforagivensituation.Self-disclosure-Formofinteractionwhichinvolvestellingotherpeopleaboutyousotheymaygettoknowyoubetter.Copyright©2014PearsonEducation,Inc.16Linear/NonlinearLanguageLinearLanguageHasabeginningandanendIslogicalIsobjectorientedLinearlanguageslookattimeonacontinuumofpresent,past,andfuture(English).NonlinearLanguageIscircularIstraditionorientedIssubjectiveNonlinearlanguagesviewtimeascyclicalandseasonsasever-repeatingpattern(ChineseandJapanese).Copyright©2014PearsonEducation,Inc.17VocabularyEquivalenceAllwordsinonelanguagemaynothaveanexacttranslationintheotherlanguage.WordpairsinEnglish(farandwide,goodandbad)donotcarrythesamerelationshipwhentranslatedtootherlanguages.Homonymsarewordsthatsoundalikebuthavedifferentmeanings.Problemsmayoccurwhenvoicetoneandpitchcanchangethemeaning(Chinese).Copyright©2014PearsonEducation,Inc.18InternationalBlundersSignsinshopwindows:“Weselldressesforstreetwalking.”(Frenchshop)“Orderyoursummersuit.Becauseifbigrushwewillexecutecustomersinstrictrotation.”(TailorinJordon)Tokyohotelpostedthissign:“Youarerespectfullyrequestedtotakeadvantageofthechambermaids.”Copyright©2014PearsonEducation,Inc.19InternationalBlunders

WhenPopeJohnPaulIIvisitedMiamiseveralyearsago,alocalbusinessmanthoughthewouldprofitbyprintingmessagesonT-shirtsdeclaringinSpanish,“IsawthePope.”Heearnedmorelaughsthanmoney;theshirtswereprintedwith“LaPapa”ratherthan“ElPapa”and,therefore,proclaimedthatthewearerhadseen“thepotato.”

(Bosrock,1995,p.40)Copyright©2014PearsonEducation,Inc.20InternationalBlunders Atoybear,madeinTaiwan,“sang”ChristmascarolsinEnglish.Onesong,though,didn’tquitecomeoutcorrectly:Itwas“OhLittleTownofBirmingham.” (Ithelpstoknowthestory.)Copyright©2014PearsonEducation,Inc.21ParablesandProverbsParable-astorytoldtoconveyatruthormorallesson.Proverb-asayingthatexpressesacommontruth.Copyright©2014PearsonEducation,Inc.22U.S.Proverbs“Theearlybirdgetstheworm.”“Wastenot,wantnot.”“Bettertoremainquietandbethoughtafoolthantospeakandremovealldoubt.”“Hewhoholdsthegoldmakestherules.”Copyright©2014PearsonEducation,Inc.23ChineseProverbs“Manwhowaitsforroastducktoflyintomouthmustwaitvery,verylongtime.”“Ajourneyofathousandmilesbeginswithasinglestep.”“Giveamanafish,andhewillliveforaday;givehimanet,andhewillliveforalifetime.”“Hewhosowshempwillreaphemp;hewhosowsbeanswillreapbeans.”Copyright©2014PearsonEducation,Inc.24GermanProverbs“Nooneiseitherrichorpoorwhohasnothelpedhimselftobeso.”“Hewhoisafraidofdoingtoomuchalwaysdoestoolittle.”“What’stheuseofrunningifyou’renotontherightroad.”Copyright©2014PearsonEducation,Inc.25JapaneseProverbs“Thenailthatsticksupgetsknockeddown.”“Silenceisgolden.”“Awisehawkhideshistalons.”

Copyright©2014PearsonEducation,Inc.26ConversationTaboos

GeneralGuidelinesAvoiddiscussingpoliticsorreligionunlesstheotherpersoninitiatesthediscussion.Avoidhighlypersonalquestions,includingprices,age,orpersonallife.Keeptheconversationpositive.Avoidaskingquestionsthatwouldimplycriticism.Copyright©2014PearsonEducation,Inc.27Avoidquestionsofacountry-sensitivenature,suchastheFalklandsWarwheninGreatBritainandWorldWarIIwheninGermanyandJapan.Avoidtellingethnicjokesbecauseofthepossibilityofoffendingsomeone.Copyright©2014PearsonEducation,Inc.28TheNatureofLanguageSEMANTICISTSareconcernedwiththemeaningofwords.GRAMMARIANSseelanguageasaseriesofgrammaticalforms,roots,andendings.NOVELISTS

believethatlanguageisaseriesofwordsarrangedtoproduceaharmoniousorlogicaleffect.LINGUISTSfocusonthephoneticaspectsoflanguage,defininglanguageasaseriesofsoundsproducedbyspeakersandreceivedbylisteners.Copyright©2014PearsonEducation,Inc.29HowLanguagesDifferSyntacticRules–arrangementofwordsinasentence.Subject,verb,objectcanbecombinedinsixpossibleways.Englishfollowsmainlyasubject-verb-objectorder(asdoFrenchandSpanish).JapaneseandKoreanhavethepreferredorderofsubject-object-verb.HebrewandWelshfollowverb-subject-object.Theobjectdoesnotcomefirstinanylanguage. Meanings

-Denotative(JapaneseSpiderCrab),Connotative(AlaskanKingCrab),andFigurative(kickingthebucket) Copyright©2014PearsonEducation,Inc.30VariationsinVerbalStyle

JapaneseVerbalStyleTheJapaneseconversewithoutrespondingtowhattheotherpersonsays.Emphasisisonnonverbalcommunicationsotheydonotlisten.Theypreferlesstalkativepersonsandvaluesilence.Copyright©2014PearsonEducation,Inc.31TheJapanesepreferapersonsaysomethinginasfewwordsaspossible.Theymakeexcusesatthebeginningofatalkforwhattheyareabouttosay.Theydonotwantapologiesforwasalreadysaid.Theyuse“yes”tomeanmanydifferentthings.Copyright©2014PearsonEducation,Inc.32VariationsinVerbalStyle

MexicanVerbalStyleTheMexicanstyleseemsoverlydramaticandemotionalbyU.S.persons.Mexicansriseabovefact;theyembellishfacts;eloquenceisadmired.Theyliketousediminutives,makingtheworldsmallerandmoreintimate.Theyaddsuffixestowordstoshrinkproblems.U.S.persons,ontheotherhand,liketoaugmenteverything.OtherculturesthinkU.S.personsareboasting.Copyright©2014PearsonEducation,Inc.33Mexicanscomeacrossaslessthantruthful.Theirrationaleinvolvestwotypesofreality-objectiveandinterpersonal.Mexicanswanttokeeppeoplehappyforthemoment.Whenaskeddirections,iftheydonotknowtheanswer,theywillmakeupsomethingtoappeartobehelpful.Copyright©2014PearsonEducation,Inc.34VariationsinVerbalStyle

ChineseVerbalStyleTheChineseunderstateorconveymeaningsindirectly.Theyusevaguetermsanddoublenegatives.Evencriticismisindirect.Harmonyisveryimportant.Duringnegotiations,theChinesestatetheirpositioninsuchawaythatseemsrepetitious.Theydonotchangetheirpointofviewwithoutdiscussingitwiththegroup.Theyspeakhumblyandspeaknegativelyoftheirsupposedlymeagerskillsandthoseoftheirsubordinates

andtheirfamily.Copyright©2014PearsonEducation,Inc.35VariationsinVerbalStyle

VerbalStylesintheArabWorldTheArabsencourageeloquenceand“flowery”prose.Theyareverbose,repetitious,andshoutwhenexcited.Fordramaticeffect,theypunctuateremarkswithpoundingthetableandmakingthreateninggestures.Copyright©2014PearsonEducation,Inc.36Arabsviewswearing,cursing,andtheuseofobscenitiesasoffensive.Theyliketotalkaboutreligionandpoliticsbutavoidtalkingaboutdeath,illness,anddisasters.Emotionalissuesareavoided.Thefirstnameisusedimmediatelyuponmeetingbutmaybeprecededbythetitle“Mr.”or“Miss.”Copyright©2014PearsonEducation,Inc.37VariationsinVerbalStyle

GermanVerbalStyleIntheGermanlanguage,theverboftencomesattheendofthesentence.Inoralcommunication,Germansdonotgettothepointrightaway.Germansarehonestanddirect;theysticktothefacts.Theyarealow-contextpeople;everythingisspelledout.Germansusuallydonotusefirstnamesunlesstheyareclosefriends(ofwhichtheyhavefew).Theydonotengageinsmalltalk;theirconversationsareseriousonawidevarietyoftopics.Avoidconversationsrelatedtotheirprivatelives.Copyright©2014PearsonEducation,Inc.38VariationsinVerbalStyle

LanguageVariationsintheU.S.Age-

somewordsarespecifictoanagegroup(“cool”).Gender

-

menspeakmore,theyrepeatmore,andmoreoftenthanwomen;womenaremoreemotionalandusesuchtermsas“sweet,”“darling,”and“dreadful.”Race-BlackEnglishincludessuchtermsasrapping(anarrationtoamusicalbeat).RegionalVariations-distinctivelanguagepatternsexistbetweenvariouspartsoftheUnitedStates.

Copyright©2014PearsonEducation,Inc.39ProblemswithTranslators

FormerPresidentJimmyCarter’sinterpreterinPolandannouncedthatthePresidentwaspleasedtobetheregraspingtheirsecretparts.IfaPresident’sinterpretercouldmakesuchablunder,itisreasonabletoassumethatyourtranslatorcoulddoasmuchdamage.Copyright©2014PearsonEducation,Inc.40Backtranslation–writtenworktranslatedtoasecondlanguage,thentranslatedbacktotheoriginallanguageGroupDecisionSupportSystem(GDSS)–softwarethatallowspeopletocommunicatebycomputerintheirownlanguagewhichistranslatedintootherlanguagesCopyright©2014PearsonEducation,Inc.41EnglishAbroad:

Something’sLostinTranslationOutsideaHongKongtailorshop: Ladiesmayhaveafitupstairs.InaCopenhagenairlineticketoffice: Wetakeyourbagsandsendthem inalldirections.InaTokyoshop: Ournylonscostmorethan common,butyou’llfindtheyare bestinthelongrun.Copyright©2014PearsonEducation,Inc.42AtaBudapestzoo: Pleasedonotfeedtheanimals.Ifyou haveanysuitablefood,giveittothe guardonduty.InaParishotelelevator: Pleaseleaveyourvaluesatthefront desk.InahotelinAthens: Visitorsareexpectedtocomplainatthe officebetweenthehoursof9and11 a.m.daily.Copyright©2014PearsonEducation,Inc.43InterpreterUseGettoknowtheinterpreterinadvance.Phrasing,accent,pace,andidiomsareallimportanttoagoodinterpreter.Reviewtechnicaltermsinadvance.Speakslowlyandclearly.Donotbeafraidtousegesturesandshowemotion.Copyright©2014PearsonEducation,Inc.44Watchtheeyes;theyarethekeytocomprehension.Insistthattheinterpretertranslateinbriefbursts,ratherthanwaituntiltheendofalongstatement.Usevisualaidswherepossible.Bycombiningthetranslator’swordswithvisualmessages,chancesofeffectivecommunicationareincreased.Copyright©2014PearsonEducation,Inc.45Becarefulofhumorandjokes;itisdifficulttoexportU.S.humor.Beespeciallycarefulwithnumbers;writeoutimportantnumberstoensureaccuratecommunication.Confirmallimportantdiscussionsinwritingtoavoidconfusionandmisunderstanding.Copyright©2014PearsonEducation,Inc.46HostLanguage

Whenusingthelanguageofthehostculture,avoidslang,jargon,andidioms.Usegesturescautiously.Determineifvoicecadenceandtoneaffectthemeaningofthemessage.Copyright©2014PearsonEducation,Inc.47SubjectiveInterpretation

Aninterpretationplacedonthemessagethatisaffectedbythethoughtprocesses–influencedbyone’stemperament,stateofmind,orpersonaljudgment.Copyright©2014PearsonEducation,Inc.48WaysofThinkingU.S.persons–thinkinafunctional,pragmaticway;theylikeproceduralknowledge.Europeans–aremoreabstract;preferdeclarativeknowledge.Japanese–workwithprecedentsandrulesratherthanabstractprobability.Copyright©2014PearsonEducation,Inc.49ThoughtsTowardNatureU.S.–viewnatureassomethingtoconquer.Asians–viewnatureassomethingwithwhichtocoexist.ColombianMestizos–considernaturedangerousandhaveafatalisticattitudetowardit.Copyright©2014PearsonEducation,Inc.50LanguageandCultureInteractionSapir-WhorfHypothesis-Themainideaisthatlanguagefunctionsasawayofshapingaperson’sexperience,notjustadeviceforreportingthatexperience.Bothstruct