中国和东南亚国家红树林评估报告现状、挑战与未来行动

ChinaandSoutheastAsianCountries’MangroveAssessment

Report:Status,Challenges,

and

the

Paths

Forward中国和东南亚国家红树林评估报告现状、挑战与未来行动(英文版)ByEditorial

Board

for

the

China

and

Southeast

Asian

Countries’Mangrove

Assessment

ReportWANG

Jing

ZHANG

Jing

CHEN

Guangcheng

Virni

Budi

ARIFANTIChina

and

Southeast

AsianCountries’

MangroveAssessment

Report:Status,Challenges,and

thePaths

Forward中国和东南亚国家红树林评估报告现状、挑战与未来行动（英文版）ChinaandSoutheast

AsianCountries’Mangrove

AssessmentReport:Status,

Challenges,and

thePathsForwardWANGJing,

SEEFoundationZHANGJing,

SEEFoundationCHENGuangcheng,ThirdInstituteofOceanography,Ministryof

NaturalResources,P.R.ChinaVirni

BudiARIFANTI,

Research

Center

for

Ecology,National

Research

and

InnovationAgency

of

theRepublicof

Indonesia(BRIN)DOURui,

AntForestFoundationFANMin,

SEEFoundationISBN978-7-03-086391-1SciencePress,BeijingCopyright©2026by

Science

PressThe

designation

ofgeographical

entities

in

this

book

and

the

presentation

ofthe

material,

do

not

implytheexpressionof

anyopinionwhatsoeveronthepartofSEEFoundationorotherparticipating

organizations

concerning

the

legal

status

ofany

country,

territory

or

area,

or

its

authorities,

or

concerningthedelimitationof

itsfrontiersorboundaries.The

views

expressed

in

this

report

do

not

necessarily

reflect

those

of

SEE

Foundation,

or

other

participatingorganizations.ResponsibleEditor:MAJunHAOChenyangContact:

majun@mail.sciencep.com;

(86)

haochenyang@cspm.com.cn;

(86)+010-

640021345EE基金会ETY

F

ENT

E

RENEUR&

E

OL○GY

FOUNDATIONRThe

China

and

SoutheastAsian

Countries’

Mangrove

AssessmentReport:Status,

Challenges,andthePaths

Forward

delivers

a

comprehensive

overview

of

mangrove

ecosystems

and

governance

across

China

and

ASEAN

member

states.

Leveraging

national

experiences,

empirical

data,

and

policy

advancements,

this

volume

analyzes

regional

biodiversity

alongsideshared

conservation

challenges,

such

as

coastal

development

and

climatechange.

Key

subjects

include

restoration

efforts,

community

engagement,and

blue

carbon

initiatives.

Crucially,

the

report

addresses

data

disparities,highlighting

the

need

for

international

cooperation

to

standardize

monitoring.This

publicationwas

made

possiblethroughthe

generoussupport

of

regional

partner

organizations.

We

extend

our

sincere

gratitude

to

all

contributingchapter

authors,

reviewers,

and

partner

organizations

who

shared

their

data

andexpertise.Tailored

for

a

diverse

audience,

this

publication

serves

as

an

essentialresourcefor

policymakers,

government

agencies,

researchers,

academicians,and

students.

It

is

equally

valuable

for

private

sector

stakeholders,

NGOs,development

practitioners,

and

members

of

the

public

interested

in

coastalgovernance

.

It

also

acknowledges

the

invaluable

contributions

of

field

practitioners

and

community

representatives

whose

firsthand

experiencesenrich

the

text.

By

providing

accessible

information

and

actionable

insights,

the

report

helps

readers

identify

primary

conservation

bottlenecks

and

makeinformeddecisionstobuildsustainable,resilientcoastalfutures.BriefIntroductionA.AldrieAMIRMalaysiaAung

MyintOOMyanmarCHENGuangchengChinaCHEN

ShunyangChinaCHENGJunChinaChristian

L.

MONTILIJAOPhilippine

(the)Ding

LiYONGSingaporeDOU

RuiChinaFAN

MinChinaFrida

SIDIKIndonesiaJuniorGama

PINTOTimor-LesteJurgenne

H.

PRIMAVERAPhilippine

(the)Li-Lee

CHEWMalaysiaLuisda

COSTATimor-LesteMario

M.CABRALTimor-LesteMeas

RITHYCambodiaPoonsriWANTHONGCHAIThailandRonaJoyA.

LOMAPhilippine

(the)SiripornSRIARAMThailandSum

DARACambodiaTAKChandaraCambodiaTariq

Mubarak

HUSINMalaysiaThiri

DaeWeiAUNGMyanmarVanessa

Herranz

MuñozSpainVirni

BudiARIFANTIIndonesiaWANG

JingChinaWANG

WenqingChinaXUWansuChinaYUWeiweiChinaZHANG

JingChinaZHANGWeiChinaEditorial

BoardfortheChinaandSoutheastAsianCountries,

MangroveAssessmentReportThe

world’s

mangroves

stand

at

a

critical

turning

point.

Rooted

in

theintertidal

zone

between

land

and

sea,

these

ecosystems

occupy

less

than1%

of

the

world’s

forest

area

yet

deliver

a

disproportionately

large

range

of

ecological

functions—sequestering

carbon

(blue

carbon),

harboring

exceptional

biodiversity,

and

protecting

coastlines,

thereby

supporting

the

livelihoods

and

safety

of

millions

of

coastal

inhabitants.

However,

under

the

pressures

of

economic

development,

the

impacts

of

climate

change,

and

fragmented

management

capacities,

mangrove

conservation

faces

unprecedentedandcomplexchallenges.It

is

against

this

backdrop

that

the

International

Mangrove

Center(IMC)

was

established.

As

a

global

platform

dedicated

to

driving

mangrove

conservation

and

sustainable

development

worldwide,

we

believe

that

the

fundamental

pathway

to

ensuring

the

long-term

health

and

sustainability

of

mangrove

ecosystems

lies

in

the

deep

integration

of

rigorous

science,effective

policies

and

community

action.China

and

Southeast

Asian

form

one

of

the

most

strategically

significantregions

for

achieving

this

goal.

Not

only

does

this

region

hold

the

world’slargest

concentration

of

mangroves,

it

also

nurtures

exceptionally

high

biodiversity

and

carries

immense

social

and

ecological

value.

For

this

very

reason,

conservation

practices

undertaken

here

matter

not

only

for

the

region

itself,

but

also

serve

as

a

far-reaching

model

for

global

oceangovernance

and

climate

action.This

report

is

an

important

outcome

of

regional

collaborative

action.

Experts

and

scholars

from

China

and

multiple

Southeast

Asian

countries

have

transcended

the

boundaries

of

language,

discipline

and

nationalForwardIborders,

and

together

completed

this

systematic

assessment

of

regionalmangrove

resources,

threats

and

conservation

practices

.

Through

this

output,

we

hope

to

provide

policy-makers,

managers

and

civil

society

actors

with

evidence-based

scientific

insights

and

operational

guidance.

We

also

look

to

this

report

as

an

opportunity

to

foster

broader

and

deepercross-bordercooperation.Protecting

mangroves

is

a

concrete

and

vital

pathway

toward

harmonybetween

people

and

nature

.

The

International

Mangrove

Center

stands

ready—with

an

open,

pragmatic

and

long-term

commitment—to

workhand

in

hand

with

all

partners,

responding

to

our

shared

responsibility

and

commonaspirationsthroughtangibleaction.Prof.

BAO

DamingDirectorGeneralof

International

MangroveCenter(IMC)May,2026China

and

Southeast

Asian

countries

represent

one

of

the

mostsignificant

regions

for

global

mangrove

distribution,

hosting

more

than

one-third

of

the

global

mangrove

resources.

The

mangroves

in

this

regionsequester

approximately

3

million

tons

of

carbon

each

year,

playing

a

significant

role

in

addressing

global

climate

change.

At

the

same

time,

the

mangrove

ecosystems

in

China

and

Southeast

Asian

Countries

are

exceptionally

rich

in

biodiversity—from

the

critically

endangered

hawksbillsea

turtle

to

the

endangered

Bengal

tiger,

and

tens

of

millions

of

birds

that

depend

on

mangrove

habitats.

This

area

is

not

only

a

critical

part

of

theEast

Asian–Australasian

Flyway

for

migratory

birds

but

also

a

sanctuary

for

many

rare

species.

Furthermore,

mangroves

safeguard

the

homes

ofapproximately

2

billion

people

in

the

region

and

provide

crucial

ecosystemservices

such

as

fisheries

resources,

coastal

protection,

and

carbonsequestration

to

millions

of

residents.However,

in

recentyears,

mangroves

across

SoutheastAsia

have

been

facing

widespread

degradation

and

loss.

Factors

such

as

climate

change,coastal

development,and

environmental

pollution

have

led

to

the

continuousencroachment

on

mangrove

wetlands

and

the

gradual

degradation

of

ecosystem

functions.

To

address

this

trend,

collaboration

and

participationfrom

all

sectors—including

governments,

scientific

community,

businesses,local

communities,the

public,and

social

welfare

organizations—are

urgentlyneeded.

As

a

philanthropic

force

from

China,

the

SEE

Foundation

has

long

been

committed

to

the

conservation

of

coastal

wetlands,

with

a

focus

onmangroves.

In2022,

responding

to

the

“Blue

Partnership”

initiative

proposedby

the

Chinese

government,

the

SEE

Foundation,

together

with

the

AntForwardIIFoundation,

jointly

launched

the

“Blue

Partnership

Action

Fund”

to

supportmarine

conservation

public

welfare

efforts

in

China

and

Southeast

AsianCountries.As

a

key

component

of

this

initiative,we

have

collaborated

with

expertsfrom

various

fields

to

compile

the

China

and

Southeast

Asian

Countries’

Mangrove

Assessment

Report:

Status,

Challenges,

and

the

PathsForward.

This

report

systematically

reviews

the

current

status

of

mangroveresources

in

different

countries,

identifies

major

threats,

summarizes

existing

conservation

and

management

practices,

and

puts

forward

recommendations

for

enhancing

transnational

cooperation

and

policy

coordination.

It

aims

to

promote

the

long-term

protection

and

restoration

of

regional

mangrove

ecosystems,

providing

scientific

foundations

andactionable

references

for

the

sustainable

management

of

mangroves.Looking

ahead,

we

hope

to

deepen

cooperation

with

regional

partnersand

work

hand

in

hand

to

protect

our

shared

ocean.Prof.YANG

BiaoSecretaryGeneralofSEE

FoundationNovember,2025Introduction1Chapter

1StatusofCambodia’s

Mangroves:ResourceDynamics,Governance,andConservationStrategies7Chapter2MangroveConservation

in

China:Status,Challenges,andSuggestions39Chapter3MangroveConservationand

Restoration

in

Indonesia:StatusandManagement57Chapter4Mangrove

Restoration

in

Malaysia:Status,Challenges,andFutureDirections79Chapter5Mangroves

in

Myanmar:Status,Conservation,andManagement105Chapter6Mangroves

inthe

Philippines:Status,ConservationandManagement135Chapter7Mangroves

in

Singapore:Status,ConservationandManagement163Chapter8AssessmentofThailand’s

Mangrove

Forests:Status,Conservation,andManagement187Chapter9MangroveConservation

inTimor-Leste:Status,Challenges,andFutureDirections213ContentForward

IForward

IIMangroves

are

salt-tolerant

plant

communities

growing

in

the

intertidalzones

of

tropical

and

subtropical

regions,

occurring

across

116

countriesand

territories

worldwide

(Giri

et

al.,

2011;

FAO,

2023,

2025).

According

torecent

estimates,

the

global

mangrove

area

is

approximately

15.9

millionhectares

in

2025,with

the

majority

distributing

in

Asia,the

Americas,

Africa,and

Oceania.Asia

harbors

the

most

mangroves,with6.102

million

hectares,accountingfor38%

ofthe

global

mangrove

extent

(FAO,

2025).

Indonesia

isthe

largest

mangrove-holding

country,where

21%

of

the

world’s

mangrovesare

found

(Leal,

2024).

Africa,

following

Asia,

has

a

total

mangrove

area

of3.28

million

hectares,accountingfor21%oftheglobal

mangrove

area

(FAO,2025).

In

terms

of

species

diversity,

the

Indo-West

Pacific

region

represents

the

hotspot

of

mangrove

species,

with

Indonesia,

Malaysia

and

Australia

exhibiting

the

highest

numbers

of

mangrove

species

(Hoeksema,

2007;Islamet

al.,

2024).Mangroves

play

a

critical

role

in

maintaining

coastal

ecosystem

structure

and

function

through

wave

attenuation,

sediment

trapping,

shoreline

stabilization,

and

water

purification.

As

primary

producers,

they

supportterrestrialand

marinefoodwebs

bysupplying

nutrientsand

providing

habitatsand

breeding

grounds

for

various

fauna,

including

birds,

insects,

fish,

crabs,andshellfish.

Furthermore,mangrovespossessastrong

carbon

sequestrationcapacity.

According

to

Leal

(2024),

mangrove

ecosystems

store

an

averageof

394

tons

of

carbon

per

hectare

within

their

living

biomass

and

the

top-meter

soil.

This

immense

storage

is

driven

by

highly

productive

canopy

thatenable

substantial

atmospheric

CO2

uptake,

alongside

complex

aboveground

structures,

such

as

prop

roots,

pneumatophores,

and

dense

stems,

whichIntroductionChinaandSoutheastAsianCountries’MangroveAssessment

Report:Status,Challenges,andthePathsForwardeffectively

trap

the

particulate

organic

carbon

from

tidal

waters.

In

addition,mangroves

provide

coastal

communities

with

timber

and

other

commercialproducts,

tourism

and

recreation

services,

supporting

local

livelihoods

andsustainabledevelopment—thediverseregionalcasesarepresentedthroughout

this

book.Despite

their

importance,

mangroves

have

experienced

extensive

destruction

and

degradation

over

recent

decades,

with

anthropogenic

pressures

intensifying

markedly

and

culminating

in

the

20th

century

(Primavera

et

al

.

,

2019;

Friess

et

al

.

,

2019)

.

This

deforestation

wasmainly

driven

by

land-use

changes

such

as

conversion

into

agriculture,

aquaculture

and

urbanized

lands,

alongside

unsustainable

timber

and

rawmaterial

extraction,

and

natural

stressors

like

coastal

erosion

and

extremeclimate

events

(Goldberg

et

al.

,

2020)

.

It

has

been

estimated

that

suchanthropogenic

factors

accounted

for62%

of

global

mangrove

loss

between2000

and

2016

(Goldberg

et

al.

,

2020),

and

that

aquaculture,

oil

palmplantations

and

rice

cultivation

collectively

contributed

to

43%

of

mangrovelosses

from

2000

to

2020

(Leal,

2024)

.

Although

the

global

mangroveloss

has

slowed

down

considerably

since

2000,

deforestation

persists

inmany

countries,

particularly

in

the

large

mangrove-holding

countries

in

Asia(FAO,

2025).

Between

2000

and

2016,

nearly

80%

of

global

mangrove

lossoccurred

within

six

Southeast

Asian

countries,

such

as

Indonesia,

Myanmar,Malaysia,

Philippines

(the),

Thailand,

and

Vietnam

(Goldberg

et

al.,

2020)

.Indonesia

has

experienced

the

largest

total

reduction

in

mangrove

area,

whereas

Myanmar

exhibited

the

highest

rate

of

deforestation

(Goldberg

et

al.

,

2020)

.

Beyond

direct

deforestation,

emerging

threats,

including

biological

invasions,

environmental

pollution,

insect

pests

and

diseases,

coastal

erosion,

and

habitat

degradation—increasingly

threaten

mangroveecosystem

health,

biodiversity,

and

ecological

integrity.

Moreover,

sea-level

rise

hinders

mangroves

from

migrating

landward

to

adapt

to

rising

waterlevels,which

leads

to

the

succession

of

mangrove

species

and

dieback.In

response,

internationalgovernance

has

been

progressively

integrated2mangroves

into

legal

and

policy

frameworks,

by

shifting

recently

towarddeep

alignment

with

climate

agendas

that

feature

clearly

defined

targets.

The

1971

Ramsar

Convention

established

the

foundational

international

framework

for

wetland

protection,

explicitly

encompassing

mangroves

.The

1992

Convention

on

Biological

Diversity

(CBD)

incorporated

mangrove

conservation

into

its

legal

obligations

of

contracting

parties,

while

the

Ramsar

COP8

in

2002

adopted

the

first

dedicated

resolution

calling

formangrove

conservation,

integrated

management,and

sustainable

use.

Morerecently,

Sustainable

Development

Goal

(SDG)

14

and

the

Aichi

BiodiversityTargets

have

reinforced

conservation

requirements

from

ecosystem

serviceand

protected

area

perspectives,

and

the

2018

Ramsar

COP13

requiredall

contracting

parties

to

report

changes

in

mangrove

area

in

response

to

sustainable

development

indicator

monitoring.

Since

2009,

the

“blue

carbon”

concept

has

tightly

coupled

mangrove

conservation

with

climatepolicy.

Following

the

UNFCCC

COP

16

recognizing

the

importance

of

bluecarbon

ecosystems

in

2010,

the

2014

IPCC

Wetlands

Supplement

enablecountries

to

include

mangrove

blue

carbon

in

their

national

greenhouse

gas

inventories.

The

Paris

Agreement

encouraged

numerous

countries

to

incorporate

mangrove

protection

and

restoration

into

their

Nationally

Determined

Contributions

(NDCs),

as

a

nature-based

solution

(NbS)

for

climate

change

mitigation

and

adaptation.

Market

mechanisms,

includingthe

Clean

Development

Mechanism

(CDM),Verified

Carbon

Standard

(VCS),

and

Plan

Vivo,

have

integrated

mangroves

into

voluntary

carbon

offsettrading

systems,thereby

unlocking

blue

carbon

value(Chen

et

al.,

2022).Entering

the

2020s,

the

international

community

has

adopted

highertargets

and

specific

measures

for

mangrove

protection

and

restoration.TheUN

Decade

on

Ecosystem

Restoration

(2021-2030)

identified

mangroves

asa

priority

target.The2022

Kunming-Montreal

Global

Biodiversity

Frameworkproposed

the“30×30”ocean

target,embedding

mangroves

within

a

broaderconservation

landscape.

Collectively,

these

developments

have

expanded

mangrove

conservation

policy

from

a

singular

focus

on

wetland

protectionIntroduction

3into

a

comprehensive

international

framework

encompassing

biodiversity,climate

mitigation

and

adaptation,and

sustainable

development.As

a

global

hotspot

for

mangrove

extent

and

biodiversity,

Asia

holdsparticularsignificanceformangroveprotectionandrestoration.Asiancountrieshave

enacted

specialized

laws

and

policies,

established

protected

areas

and

ecological

redlines,

promoted

community

participation,

implementedcarbontrading

schemes,

and

undertaken

ecological

restoration.

For

instance,

the

implementation

of

China’s

SpecialAction

Plan

forMangrove

Protectionand

Restoration

(2020-2025)

resulted

in

an

increase

in

mangrove

area

from

27,100

hectares

in

2019

to

31,700

hectares

by

2025,

while

also

supportedthe

integrating

blue

carbon

into

China’s

NDCs

andvoluntary

emission

trading

market.Similarly,

Indonesiahaslaunchedmultiplenational

plans—includingtheIndonesianMangroveforCoastalResilience

(M4CR)

program,

aimsto

restore41,000

hectares

mangroves

by

2027

and

National

Long

Term

DevelopmentPlan

(2025-2045)targetingacumulatively245,000

hectares

mangrove

acrossfourphases—towardannationalrestorationgoalof600,000

hectares.Despite

these

ambitious

targets,

challenges

do

exist,

including

low

restoration

effectiveness,

insufficient

community

participation,

and

conflictsbetween

conservation

and

coastal

development.

This

report,

therefore,

reviews

the

status,

major

challenges,

and

progresses

of

mangrove

conservation

and

restoration

practices

in

China

and

eight

Southeast

Asiancountries,

namely

Cambodia,

Indonesia,

Malaysia,

Myanmar,

Philippines(the),

Singapore,Thailand,

andTimor-Leste.

Relevant

chapters

detail

spatial

distribution,

species

composition,

policies

frameworks,

and

critical

gaps

incurrent

conservation

efforts.

By

facilitating

the

cross-nation

compilation

andknowledge

sharing,this

report

seeks

to

promote

regional

policy

coordinationand

mutual

learning,

contributingto

a

more

effective

cooperativeframeworkfor

mangrove

protection

and

restoration.Editorial

BoardfortheChinaandSoutheastAsianCountries’

MangroveAssessment

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5Chapter1StatusofCambodia’sMangroves:ResourceDynamics,Governance,

andConservationStrategiesAuthors:•

Meas

Rithy,

DepartmentofCoastalZone

and

MarineConservation,

MinistryofEnvironment,Cambodia•Sum

Dara,

Departmentofthe

Marineand

CoastalZoneConservation,

MinistryofEnvironment,Cambodia•ChengJun,

Fauna&

Flora

Cambodia

Programme•ChandaraTak,

Fauna&

Flora

Cambodia

Programme•Vanessa

Herranz

Muñoz,

FishingCat

Ecological

EnterpriseCo.AbstractCambodia

has

approximately55,470

hectares(FAO,2020)of

mangroveforests

distributed

across

four

coastal

provinces:

Koh

Kong,

PreahSihanouk,

Kampot,

and

Kep,

harboring

over

700

species

across

taxonomicgroups,

roughly

accounts

for

0.40%

of

the

global

mangrove

estate

of

14.8million

hectares

(FAO,

2023).

Since

the

1990s,

Cambodia

has

progressively

strengthened

mangrove

conservation

through

legislation

including

the

Lawon

Forestry

(2002),

the

Law

on

Nature

Protection

Areas

(2008),

and

theCode

on

Environment

and

Natural

Resources

(2023),

the

designation

of

protected

areas

including