语言学教程 Chapter 3

1、Chapter three,From Morpheme to Phrase,Contents,3.1 What is Morpheme? 3.2 What is word? 3.3 Word formation (1) 3.4 Word formation (2) 3.5 Word group and phrase,3.1 What is morpheme?,3.1.1 Morpheme and Morphology Morphemes: 1)The smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression an

2、d content, a unit that cannot be further divided into smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it islexical or grammatical. E.g. boys, checking,disappointment. 2)The minimal unit of meaning 3)The smallest meaning-bearing unit Morphology: 1) The study of word-form

3、ation, or the internal structure of words, or the rules by which words are formed from smaller componentsmorphemes. E.g 2) The systematic study of morhoeme is a branch of linguistics, which investigates the internal structures and rules of morphemes by which words are formed. E.g,3.1 What is morphem

4、e?,3.1.2 Types of morphemes (1) Free vs. Bound morphemes: Free morphemes: may occur alone, may constitute words by themselves. e.g. boy, girl, table, nation. Bound morphemes: can not be used by themselves, but must be combined with other morphemes to form words. e.g.-s, -ed, dis-, un- .,3.1 What is

5、morpheme?,3.1.2 Types of morphemes (2) Root, affix and stem 1) Root: the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity, e.g. friend as in unfriendliness. Roots may be free: those that can stand by themselves, e.g. black+board; nation+-al; or bound: those that can

6、not stand by themselves, eg -ceive in receive, perceive, conceive. both free and bound: sleep and child are free root morphemes, whereas slep- in the past tense form of sleep, i.e. slept, and child- in the plural form of child, namely children, cannot exist by themselves, and are hence bound.,3.1 Wh

7、at is morpheme?,3.1.2 Types of morphemes (2) Root, affix and stem 2) Affix: the collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme. Normally divided into prefix (dis-, un-) infix (feet ) suffix (-en, -ify) 3) Stem: a morpheme or combination of morphemes to

8、which an inflectional affix may be added, e.g. friend+-s; write+-ing, possibility+-es.,3.1 What is morpheme?,3.1.2 Types of morphemes (3) Inflectional affix and derivational affix Inflection: grammatical endings, such as plural, tense, comparative, genitive, etc. e.g. drums, walks, taller, Marys. De

9、rivation: form a new word, e.g. suburban, depart, online; slaver, teacher, workable.,The relationship between different morphemes,morpheme,free:,bound:,free root,bound root,root,affix,inflectional,derivational,prefix,suffix,infix,suffix,3.1 What is morpheme?,3.1.3 Morphological change and Allomorph,

10、Allomorph: A morpheme may have alternate shapes or phonetic forms. The variant forms of the same morpheme are called its allomorphs.,See the following examples: The plural morpheme in English can be represented by /s/, /z/, /iz/. Each is an allomorph of the plural morpheme. The past tense morpheme o

11、f verb can be realized by d as in produced, -ed as in walked, io as in wrote. Each is an allomorph of the past tense morpheme.,一、术语解释 1. bound root 四川大学2006研 【答案】It refers to the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity, and this base form could not occur al

12、one, such as “-ceive” in “receive”. 2. Functional morpheme 上海交通大学2005研 【答案】Functional morpheme. This is a subtype of free morphemes, which one consists largely of the functional words in language such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns, for example, “and, about when on, near, the”

13、and so on. 其他考过的术语： allomorph 四川大学2006研 morpheme 浙江大学2005研；武汉大学2008研；四川大学2006，2007研 stem 四川大学2007研；南开大学2004研 inflectional morpheme 南开大学2004研 Free morphemes 西安交大2008研 Bound morpheme 上海交通大学2006，2007研 inflection 四川大学2007研 compound 四川大学2007研 allophone 北京师范大学2004研,二、选择题 1. other than compounds may be div

14、ided into roots and affixes. 大连外国语学院2008研 A. Polymorphemic words B. Bound morphemes C. Free morphemes 【答案】A 2. Which two terms can best describe the following pairs of words: tabletables, day + breakdaybreak. 大连外国语学院2008研 A. inflection and compound B. compound and derivation C. inflection and deriva

15、tion 【答案】A 3. Compound words consist of morphemes. 北京第二外国语学院2003研 A. bound B. free C. both bound and free 【答案】B,三、论述题 What is the distinction between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes? 四川大学2007研 【答案】The distinction between inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes could be illust

16、rated in the following four aspects. 1. Inflectional affixes very often only add a minute or delicate grammatical meaning to the stem, for instance, those inflectional affixes in words such as toys, walks, Johns, etc. Therefore, they serve to produce different forms of a single word. In contrast, de

17、rivational affixes often change the lexical meaning, e g cite, citation; generate, generation. 2. Inflectional affixes do not change the word class of the word they attach to, such as flower, flowers; whereas derivational affixes might or might not, such as the relation between small and smallness f

18、or the former, and that between brother and brotherhood for the latter. 3. Very often inflectional affixes are conditioned by non-semantic linguistic factors outside the word they attach to but within the phrase or sentence. Whereas derivational affixes are more often based on simple meaning distinc

19、tions. 4. In English, inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes, which are always word final. But derivational affixes can be prefixes or suffixes.,四、填空题 1. There are two fields of morphology: the study of and the study of . 人大2006研 【答案】inflectional；lexical/derivational 2. A morpheme is one that cann

20、ot constitute a word by itself. 北京第二外国语学院2003研 【答案】bound 3. is a branch of linguistics that studies the interrelationship between phonology and morphology. 南开大学2007研 【答案】Morphophonology,一、术语解释 1. Cardinal vowel 四川大学2006研，大连外国语学院2008研 2. Glottal Stop 四川大学2006研 3. Bilabial consonant 四川大学2007研 4. Voice

21、less 西安交通大学2008研,二、简答题 1. Mention a labiodental sound in English. Tell what speech organs are involved in producing labiodental sounds. (4 points) 北京第二外国语学院2007研 2. What are the differences between voiced sounds and voiceless sounds in terms of articulation? 南开大学2004研,三、选择题 1. Of the consonants /p/,

22、 /t/, /k/, /f/, /m/, /z/ and /g/, which has the features of voiceless and velar? 对外经济贸易大学2005研 A. /k/ B. /p/ C. /g/ D. /t/ 2. The vowel is a low back vowel. 西安外国语学院2006研 a. /i:/ b. /u/ c. / d. /a:/ 3. Point out which item does not fall under the same category as the rest, and explain the reason in O

23、NE sentence. 南京大学2008研 A. /f/ B. /z/ C. /v/ D. /k/ Focus on manner of articulation,五、填空题 1. Consonant articulations are relatively easy to feel, and as a result are most conveniently described in terms of place and of articulation. 北京第二外国语学院2008研 2. are produced by constricting or obstructing the vo

24、cal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity. 中山大学2006研 六、判断正误 1. Bilabial consonant is produced when the obstruction is partial and the air is forced through a narrow passage. 对外经济贸易大学2006研 2. The sound segments are grouped into consonants and

25、 vowels. 大连外国语学院2008研,七、音标题 Work out the distinctive features of the following sounds. (10%)南开大学2007研 1. th _ 2. w _ 3. v _ 4. _ 5. l _,3.2 What is word?,1. Three senses of “word” 2 . Identification of words 3 . Classification of words,1. Three senses of “word”,A unit of expression that native speak

26、ers may recognize by intuition, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form. A vague definition.,Three senses are involved in defining “word”, none of which is satisfactory to cope with all the situations. (1) A physical unit : a cluster of sound segments or letters between two pauses or blank

27、s, eg Phonological: t z wndfl Orthographic: It is wonderful . Three words are recognized.,(2) Both as a general term and as a specific term A set of forms: walk, walks, walking, walked How many words are there? (general:one; specific:four) So WORD may be used both as a general term (then walk, walks

28、, walking,walked are just one word) and as specific items (then walk, walks, walking, walked are three words).,(3) A grammatical unit : sentence clause phrase word morpheme The Word rank is located between Morpheme Phrase. A word, in this sense, is then a grammatical unit, just like morpheme or clau

29、se complex.,2. Identification of words Three factors to identify words: (1) Stability : the most stable of all linguistic units. e.g. housewife , but not *wifehouse (2) Relative uninterruptibility: new elements should not be inserted into a word. e.g. independent , but not * inadependention,(3) A mi

30、nimum free form: the smallest unit that can be used as a complete utterance by itself, e.g Certainly. Yes. Hi. Wonderful Morning.,3. Classification of words,(1) General classification a. Variable vs. Invariable Words b. Grammatical vs. Lexical Words c. Closed-class vs. Open-class Words,a. variable w

31、ords half, one-third, three-quarters ; double, twice, three times ; such, what (exclamative), etc. Central determiners: the; this, these, that, those; my, our, your, his, her, its, their; a, another, some, any, no, either, neither; each, every; enough, much, more, most, less; a few, a little), etc.

32、Postdeterminers: next, last, past, additional; many, several, few, little; one, two, three ; (a) dozen), etc.,When different sub-classes of determiners occur together, they follow the order of pre-determiners + central determiners + post-determiners. As many as three subclasses of determiners (pre-,

33、 central, and post-) may be used, there is a fixed order when more than one appears. See the following examples: all your books half my salary every other month for the past few years,3.3 Words Formation (1),Inflection,Nominal forms: boys, boys Verb forms: wants, wanted, wanting Adjective/adverb for

34、ms: smaller, smallest,Two types of the process of how words are formed,(1) Compounding (a process of combining two or more words into one lexical unit ).Two or more free roots combine to produce a new word. Noun compounds: daybreak, playboy, haircut, Verb compounds: brainstorm, lipread, babysit Adje

35、ctive compounds: gray-haired, insect-eating Preposition compounds: upon, throughout,Written forms of compounds Solid: blackboard, teapot, bodyguard Hyphenated: wedding-ring, wave-length Open: coffee table, washing machine Free variation: businessman, business-man, business man winebottle, wine-bottl

36、e, wine bottle no one, no-one, none,(2) Derivation (the process by which words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots or words). It shows a relationship between roots and affixes. Class-changing: N V: lengthen, hospitalize, discard N A: friendly, delightful, speechless VN: worker, employ

37、ee, inhabitant VA: acceptable, adorable A N: rapidness, rapidity A V: deafen, sweeten AdjAdv: exactly, quickly,Class-preserving: NN: nonsmoker, ex-wife, booklet VV: disobey, unfasten AA: grayish, irrelevant,一、术语解释 1. Cardinal vowel 四川大学2006研，大连外国语学院2008研 【答案】The cardinal vowels are a set of vowel qu

38、alities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages. 2. Glottal Stop 四川大学2006研 【答案】Vocal tract is composed of oral cavity, nasal cavity and pharynx. When the vocal folds are totally closed, no air

39、can pass between them. The result of this gesture is the glottal stop. 3. Bilabial consonant 四川大学2007研 【答案】Bilabial consonants refer to consonants which are made with the two lips. 4. Voiceless 西安交通大学2008研 【答案】When the vocal folds are apart, the air can pass through easily and the sound produced is

40、said to be voiceless. For example, consonants p, s, t are produced this way, so they are voiceless consonants. “Voiceless” is defined in contrast with “voiced”. Consonants b, z, d are voiced consonants.,二、简答题 1. Mention a labiodental sound in English. Tell what speech organs are involved in producin

41、g labiodental sounds. (4 points) 北京第二外国语学院2007研 【答案】/f/ (or /v/), the upper front teeth and the lower lip are involved. 2. What are the differences between voiced sounds and voiceless sounds in terms of articulation? 南开大学2004研 【答案】When the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes

42、between them unimpeded. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiceless. Consonants p, s, t are produced in this way. When the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeatedly push them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect. Sounds produced in this way are d

43、escribed as voiced. b, z, d are voiced consonants.,三、选择题 1. Of the consonants /p/, /t/, /k/, /f/, /m/, /z/ and /g/, which has the features of voiceless and velar? 对外经济贸易大学2005研 A. /k/ B. /p/ C. /g/ D. /t/ 【答案】A 2. The vowel is a low back vowel. 西安外国语学院2006研 a. /i:/ b. /u/ c. / d. /a:/ 【答案】d 3. Point

44、 out which item does not fall under the same category as the rest, and explain the reason in ONE sentence. 南京大学2008研 A. /f/ B. /z/ C. /v/ D. /k/ Focus on manner of articulation 【答案】D (Reason: A, B and C are fricatives, but D is a plosive.),五、填空题 1. Consonant articulations are relatively easy to feel

45、, and as a result are most conveniently described in terms of place and of articulation. 北京第二外国语学院2008研 【答案】manner 2. are produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity. 中山大学2006研 【答案】consonants 六、判断正

46、误 1. Bilabial consonant is produced when the obstruction is partial and the air is forced through a narrow passage. 对外经济贸易大学2006研 【答案】F 2. The sound segments are grouped into consonants and vowels. 大连外国语学院2008研 【答案】T,七、音标题 Work out the distinctive features of the following sounds. (10%)南开大学2007研 1.

47、th _ 2. w _ 3. v _ 4. _ 5. l _ 【答案】 1. th aspirated voiceless alveolar stop 2. w voiced bilabial approximant 3. v voiced labio-dental fricative 4. voiced dental fricative 5. l voiced alveolar lateral,3.4 Word Formation (2) : Lexical change,(1) Invention Mostly brand names: Kodak, Coke, nylon, Band-a

48、id, Nike, Lycra,(2) Blending: a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining together the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words. initial + final transfer + resistor transistor smoke

49、+ fog smog motorist + hotel motel breakfast + lunch brunch initial + initial modulator +demodulator modem teleprinter + exchange telex digital + computer digicom,(3)Abbreviations (Clipping) Back-clippings: ad(vertisement), chimp(anzee), deli(catessen), exam(ination), hippo(potamus), lab(oratory), pi

50、ano(forte), reg(ulation)s Fore-clippings: (ham)burger, (omni)bus, (violin)cello, (heli)copter, (alli)gator, (tele)phone, (earth)quake Fore-and-back clippings: (in)flu(enza), (de)tec(tive),(4) Acronym: is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified head

51、word. AIDS, Aids: Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome ASAP: as soon as possible CD-ROM: compact disc read-only memory WASP: white Anglo-Saxon protestant dink(y): double income, no kids nilk(y): no income, lots of kids AI: artificial intelligence a.s.a.p.: as soon as possible ECU: European Currency U

52、nit HIV: human immunodeficiency virus PC: personal computer,(5) Back-formation: refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language. diagnose diagnosis enthuse enthusiasm laze lazy statistic statistics

53、televise television edit editor air-condition air-conditioning babysit babysitter brainstorm brainstorming brainwash brainwashing,(6) Analogical creation From irregular to regular: work: wrought worked beseech: besought beseeched Distinction between analogical creation & overgeneralization: the latt

54、er being regarded as a mistake in the use of language, as in goed (went), teached (taught).,(7) Class shift engineer engineer stump stump hog hog,(8) Borrowing Greek, Latin, French, Spanish, Arabic and other languages have all played an active role in this process. e.g. French: administration, parliament, public, court, crime, judge, army, enemy, officer, peace, soldier, war, faith, religion, coat, costume, dress, fashion, jewel, dinner, feast, fry, roast, supper, toast, customer, money, price, art, college, music, poet, prose, story, study Lat