语言学概论课件

1、语 言 学 概 论 linguistics,南阳师院文学院,Requirments and evaluation the curriculum,Mental preparation be calm be patient Learning methods Analysis 2. There are still many languages that have only the spoken form; 3. In terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the writte

2、n, and carries a larger load of communication than the written.,共同语和方言Lingua Franca VS Dialects,Lingua Franca/ Common language A lingua franca (English pronunciation: /lgw frak/) also called a bridge language, or vehicular language, is a language systematically (as opposed to occasionally, or casual

3、ly) used to make communication possible between persons not sharing a native language, in particular when it is a third language, distinct from both native languages.2,南阳师院文学院,Whereas a vernacular language is used as a native language in a single speaker community, a lingua franca goes beyond the bo

4、undaries of its original community, and is used as a second language for communication between groups. For example, English is a vernacular in the United Kingdom, but is used as a vehicular language (i.e., a lingua franca) in the Philippines.,南阳师院文学院,International auxiliary languages such as Esperan

5、to have not had a high level of adoption globally, so they cannot be described as global lingua francas, although they play this role in various contexts.,南阳师院文学院,二、什么是语言学,是研究语言及其相关问题的科学。 Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language 基础研究basic research 具体语言学和普通语言学 历时语言学和共时语言学

6、应用研究applied research 交叉研究cross-over research,第二节 语言的功能 Functions of language,The Referential Function指称功能 The Expressive (alternatively called “emotive” or “affective”) Function表达功能 The Conative Function意动功能 The Poetic Function 诗学功能 The Phatic Function 交际功能 The Metalingual (alternatively called “met

7、alinguistic” or “reflexive”) Function元语言功能,The Referential Function corresponds to the factor of Message and describes a situation, object or mental state. The descriptive statements of the referential function can consist of both definite descriptions and deictic words, e.g. The autumn leaves have

8、all fallen now.,The Expressive (alternatively called emotive or affective) Function relates to the Addresser (sender) and is best exemplified by interjections and other sound changes that do not alter the denotative meaning of an utterance but do add information about the Addressers (speakers) inter

9、nal state, e.g. Wow, what a view!,南阳师院文学院,The Conative Function engages the Addressee (receiver) directly and is best illustrated by vocatives and imperatives, e.g. Tom! Come inside and eat!,南阳师院文学院,The Poetic Function focuses on the message for its own sake(the code itself, and how it is used) and

10、is the operative function in poetry as well as slogans. 玲珑塔，塔玲珑。玲珑宝塔十三层。 绕口令,The Phatic Function is language for the sake of interaction and is therefore associated with the Contact factor. The Phatic Function can be observed in greetings and casual discussions of the weather, particularly with stra

11、ngers. It also provides the keys to open, maintain, verify or close the communication channel: Hello?, Ok?, Hummm, Bye.,南阳师院文学院,The Metalingual (alternatively called metalinguistic or reflexive) Function is the use of language (what Jakobson calls Code) to discuss or describe itself. (All this artic

12、le is an example of metalinguistic Function).,南阳师院文学院,第三节 语言规划language planing,Language planningis a deliberate effort to influence the function, structure, or acquisition oflanguages orlanguage varietywithin aspeech community.It is often associated withgovernmentplanning, but is also used by a vari

13、ety ofnon-governmental organizations, such as grass-roots organizations and even individuals.,南阳师院文学院,第三节 语言规划 language planing,Language planningis a deliberate effort to influence the function, structure, or acquisition oflanguagesorlanguage varietywithin aspeech community.It is often associated wi

14、thgovernmentplanning, but is also used by a variety ofnon-governmental organizations, such as grass-roots organizations and even individuals.,南阳师院文学院,一、Status planning语言地位规划,Status planning is the allocation or reallocation of a language or variety to functional domains within a society, thus affect

15、ing the status, or standing, of a language. ten functional domains in language planning:,南阳师院文学院,ten functional domains,1.Official - An official language functions as a legally appropriate language for all politically and culturally representative purposes on a nation wide basis.Often, the official

16、function of a language is specified in aconstitution. 2.Provincial - A provincial language functions as an official language for a geographic area smaller than a nation, typically aprovinceorregion(e.g. French inQuebec),南阳师院文学院,3.Wider communication - A language of wider communication is a language

17、that may be official or provincial, but more importantly, functions as a medium of communication across language boundaries within a nation (e.g.Hindiin India;Swahili languageinEast Africa) 4.International - An international language functions as a medium of communication across national boundaries

18、(e.g. English),南阳师院文学院,5.Capital - A capital language functions as a prominent language in and around a nationalcapital(e.g.Dutchand French inBrussels布鲁塞尔) 6.Group - A group language functions as a conventional language among the members of a single cultural or ethnic group (e.g. Hebrew希伯来语 amongst

19、the Jews),南阳师院文学院,7.Educational - An educational language functions as a medium of instruction inprimaryandsecondaryschools on a regional or national basis 8.School subject - A school subject language is a language that is taught as a subject in secondary school orhigher education(e.g.Latinand Ancie

20、nt Greekin English schools),南阳师院文学院,9.Literary - A literary language functions as a language forliteraryorscholarlypurposes (Ancient Greek) 10.Religious - A religious language functions as a language for the ritual purposes of a particular religion (e.g. Latin for theLatin Rite拉丁礼within the Roman Ca

21、tholic 天主教的Church;Arabicfor the reading of theQuran古兰经),南阳师院文学院,Corpus planning,theprescriptiveintervention in the forms of a language, whereby planning decisions are made to engineer changes in the structure of the language.Corpus planning activities often arise as the result of beliefs about the a

22、dequacy of the form of a language to serve desired functions.Unlike status planning, which is primarily undertaken by administrators and politicians, corpus planning generally involves planners with greater linguistic expertise.,南阳师院文学院,Acquisition planning,To decide what languages should be taught

23、within thecurriculum. To determine the amount and quality ofteacher training. To involve localcommunities. To determine what materials will be used and how they will be incorporated intosyllabi. To establish a local and stateassessmentsystem to monitor progress. To determine financialcosts.,南阳师院文学院,

24、Eleven Language Planning Goals have been recognized : 1.Language Purification prescription of usage in order to preserve the “linguistic purity” of language, protect language from foreign influences, and guard against language deviation from within 2.Language Revival the attempt to turn a language w

25、ith few or no surviving native speakers back into a normal means of communication 保护方言上海公交车 希伯来语,南阳师院文学院,3.Language Reform deliberate change in specific aspects of language, likeorthography,spelling, orgrammar, in order to facilitate use 4.Language Standardization the attempt to garnerprestigefor a

26、regional language or dialect, transforming it into one that is accepted as the major language, orstandard language, of aregion,南阳师院文学院,5.Language Spread the attempt to increase the number of speakers of one language at the expense of another 6.Lexical Modernization word creation or adaptation 7.Term

27、inology Unification development of unified terminologies, primarily in technical domains 8.Stylistic Simplification simplification of language usage inlexicon, grammar, and style. That includes modifying the use of language in social and formal contexts.,南阳师院文学院,9.Interlingual Communication facilita

28、tion of linguistic communication between members of distinct speech communities 10.Language Maintenance preservation of the use of a groups native language as a first orsecond languagewhere pressures threaten or cause a decline in the status of the language 11.Auxiliary-Code Standardization standard

29、ization of marginal, auxiliary aspects of language such as signs for the deaf, place names, or rules of transliterationandtranscription注音法,南阳师院文学院,第四节 语言学简史History of linguistics,Early grammarians The formal study of language began in India with Pini巴尼尼, the 5th century BC grammarian who formulated

30、3,959 rules of Sanskrit梵文 morphology. Pinis systematic classification of the sounds of Sanskrit梵文 into consonants and vowels, word classes, such as nouns and verbs, was the first known instance of its kind.,南阳师院文学院,In the Middle East Sibawayh () made a detailed description of Arabic in 760 AD in his

31、 monumental work, Al-kitab fi al-nahw ( , The Book on Grammar), the first known author to distinguish between sounds and phonemes (sounds as units of a linguistic system).,南阳师院文学院,Early interest in language in the West was a part of philosophy, not of grammatical description. The first insights into

32、 semantic theory were made by Plato in his Cratylus dialogue, where he argues that words denote concepts that are eternal and exist in the world of ideas. This work is the first to use the word etymology to describe the history of a words meaning.,南阳师院文学院,南阳师院文学院,（三）语言学研究的分类,第二章 语言结构language structu

33、re,语言的层级和层面 组合关系和聚合关系 语言结构的共性和个性 语言结构类型,南阳师院文学院,Company Logo,（一）语言的层级language hierarchy,符号层,语素morpheme、词word 、句子sentence,音位phoneme 音节syllble,语言层级的特点,质的区别 量的区别 组合规则,Company Logo,（二）语言的层面,语言的层面,1.语音层 小王明天去北京。 乒乓球两块五十个 我们都三十岁了。 a.我们每个人都三十岁了。b.我们已经三十岁了。 2.语义层 a.他多了个包袱。 b.他连我都不怕。 他不怕我。 我不怕他。,3.语汇层 a.我去。他

34、去。 b,形式变了。形势变了。 他非常尊敬师长。 4.语法层 a.我要烤红薯。 b.哥哥和姐姐的同学都走了。,5.语用层 a.指示信息 我怕你。 b.语用含义 （三）层级与层面的关系 1.角度和标准不同。层级是根据语言单位的大小和级别来分的；层面是根据语言的结构要素及其功能来分的。 2.二者之间有交叉,二、组合关系和聚合关系,Sequential(syntagmatic) relations 组合关系 The linear ordering of the words and the phrases within a sentence. Substitutional(paradigmatic)

35、relations (聚合关系) If the words or phrases in a sentence can be replaced by words and phrases outside the sentence and the resulting sentence is still grammatical, then we say the replacing forms and replaced forms have paradigmatic relations.,Sequential(syntagmatic) relations 组合关系,又叫结构关系 新生明天开始上课。 组合

36、关系来自于规则 组合关系是有层次的。,Substitutional(paradigmatic) relations (聚合关系),聚合关系 具有相同组合功能的语言单位之间的关系。 1.张三喝酒。 2.李四看书。 3.王五卖瓜。 a.具有聚合关系的语言单位之间，一般能互相替换 b.不能替换，但它们有相同的组合功能。 c.聚合类,三、语言结构的共性和个性universality and individuality,语言的结构面貌，在一定程度上受制于人类的生理、心理机制和社会生活的状况。 语言的共性 语音方面 语义 语汇 语法,语言的个性,语音 1.音位的个数不同； 2.音位的组合方式不同 3.音变

37、方式不同 语义 1.不同语言之间很少有词义完全相等的词 2.语义系统不同 3.词义搭配不同,共性 generality 1. an idea or conclusion having general application 2. the quality of being general or widespread or having general applicability similarity universality the quality of being universal; existing everywhere general character,个性 individuality

38、 心理 personality character selfhood selfdom,语汇 1.造词方式不同 2.语汇系统不同 3.熟语面貌差别很大 4.语形聚类差别很大 语法 1.语法形式差别很大 2.词类有所不同 3.句法构造方面，语序有所不同,四、语言结构类型,根据语法特征，从词法和句法两个不同的角度，划分若干基本的形态类型和句法类型。 形态类型 根据语言中形态变化是否丰富，以及形态变化的不同方式，将人类的语言划分为四种形态类型 （词法类型） 句法类型 根据句子的主要成分主语、谓语、宾语的位置来分,（一）形态类型,词根语 radical language/isolating langua

39、ge 屈折语 inflectional/fusional language 黏着语 agglutinative language 编插语incorporating language 分析语 analyltic 综合语 synthetic 分析-综合语,南阳师院文学院,（二）句法类型,SVO SOV VSO VOS OVS,南阳师院文学院,（三）句法类型学 linguistic typology,主要任务：对人类的不同语言及方言的结构系统的异同进行比较和分类，重点揭示人类语言结构的普遍性。 第一阶段 洪堡特和萨丕尔 各种基本的形态类型和结构类型 第二阶段 格林伯格 主要跟语序有关的语法普遍现象

40、第三阶段 科姆里和克罗夫特 形成各种语言结构特征的原因和机制,南阳师院文学院,第二节 sounds of speech,一、语音和语音学,（一）语音的性质 生理属性 物理属性 心理属性 社会属性,南阳师院文学院,1.生理属性,The pharyngeal cavity 咽腔 The oral cavity 口腔 The nasal cavity 鼻腔 其他部位：Lips唇1, teeth齿2, teeth ridge (alveolus)齿龈3, hard palate硬腭4, soft palate (velum)软腭5, uvula小舌6, tip of tongue舌尖7, blade

41、of tongue舌面8, back of tongue舌后9, vocal cords声带10,南阳师院文学院,2.语音的声学性质,音高 pitch 频率 声调和语调 音强 intensity of sound 振幅 轻重音 音长 length 时间长短 长短音 音质 tone colour频谱形式 各种音素 元音和辅音,南阳师院文学院,3.语音的心理性质,听话人形成的声音形象与客观的声波形式并非一一对应。 筛选、比较和抽象分类，将有共同区别特征的不同声音形式归为一类。 客观声音形式的音高、音强、音长和音质的绝对值的差别对于感知语音形式来说并不太重要，重要的是不同语音形式之间相对值的差别。,

42、南阳师院文学院,4.语音的社会性质,听话人对语音的感知及其所形成的声音形象，主要不是取决于个人的发音器官和听觉神经的状况和功能，而是取决于听话人所处的社会环境，以及有社会环境所决定的语音区别功能。 对语音进行分析归类时，受制于头脑中原有的语音分类系统，而这种语音分类系统是人们长期的语言交际活动中形成的。,南阳师院文学院,Phonetics语音学,Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that comprises the study of the sounds of human speech, orin the case of sign languages手语

43、the equivalent aspects of sign. It is concerned with the physical properties of speech sounds or signs (phones): their physiological production, acoustic properties, auditory perception, and neurophysiological status. Phonology, on the other hand, is concerned with the abstract, grammatical characte

44、rization of systems of sounds or signs.,Branch of phonetics,1.Articulatory phonetics生理语音学、发音语音学 2.Acoustic phonetics声学语音学、音响语音学 3.Auditory phonetics: 心理语音学、听觉语音学 These areas are inter-connected through the common mechanism of sound, such as wavelength (pitch), amplitude振幅, and harmonics. 4.Phonology

45、音系学 5.Experimental phonetics,articulatory phonetics 发音语音学,The field of articulatory phonetics is a subfield of phonetics. In studying articulation, phoneticians explain how humans produce speech sounds via the interaction of different physiological structures. 古印度 Consonants and Vowels. 古希腊 The Phoe

46、nicians are credited as the first to create a phonetic writing system, from which all major modern phonetic alphabets are now derived 创立元音字母 place and manner of articulation,IPA,The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is used as the basis for the phonetic transcription of speech. It is based on th

47、e Latin alphabet and is able to transcribe most features of speech such as consonants, vowels, and suprasegmental features. Every documented phoneme available within the known languages in the world is assigned its own corresponding symbol.,Acoustic phonetics声学语音学,Acoustic phonetics声学语音学: the study

48、of the physical transmission of speech sounds from the speaker to the listener. acoustic phonetics is concerned with acoustics of speech: The spectro-temporal properties of the sound waves produced by speech, such as their frequency, amplitude, and harmonic structure.,Auditory phonetics心理语音学,Auditor

49、y phonetics: the study of the reception and perception of speech sounds by the listener 最近二三十年才形成。 以什么语音单位为感知单位？ 按什么顺序感知各个语音单位？ 怎样将接收到的语音信息与语言符号进行匹配，从而实现语言的理解？,Phonology音系学,音系学又称音位学，研究语音的社会属性，即根据语音区别不同语言符号的社会交际功能来研究各种语言的语音系统。 各种语言系统中有多少个音位？ 每个音位有哪些音位变体？ 音位之间的区别特征有哪些？ 音位和音位怎样组合成音节的？ 语音组合时发生怎样的变化（韵律变化

50、和语流音变） 、,南阳师院文学院,Phonology音系学,Phonology is a branch of linguistics concerned with the systematic organization of sounds in languages. It has traditionally focused largely on study of the systems of phonemes in particular languages (and is therefore also called phonemics, or phonematics), but it may

51、also cover any linguistic analysis either at a level beneath the word (including syllable, onset and rhyme, articulatory gestures, articulatory features, mora, etc.) or at all levels of language where sound is considered to be structured for conveying linguistic meaning. Phonology also includes the

52、study of equivalent organizational systems in sign languages.,南阳师院文学院,Phonology is often distinguished from phonetics. While phonetics concerns the physical production, acoustic transmission and perception of the sounds of speech,phonology describes the way sounds function within a given language or

53、 across languages to encode meaning. Nikolai Trubetzkoy, 1920s,南阳师院文学院,Experimental phonetics实验语音学,早期又名仪器语音学 instrumental phonetics,南阳师院文学院,二、音素和音位phoneme,A phoneme is a basic unit of a languages phonology, which is combined with other phonemes to form meaningful units such as words or morphemes. Th

54、e phoneme can be described as The smallest contrastive linguistic unit which may bring about a change of meaning.In this way the difference in meaning between the English words kill and kiss is a result of the exchange of the phoneme /l/ for the phoneme /s/. Two words that differ in meaning through

55、a contrast of a single phoneme are called minimal pairs.,南阳师院文学院,1.什么是音素,是根据语音的自然属性划分出来的最小语音单位。 从声学性质来看，音素是从音质角度划分出来的最小语音单位； 从生理性质来看，一个发音动作形成一个音素 音素一般用国际音标来标记，用 标明。 音素一般分为元音和辅音consonant and vowel,南阳师院文学院,元音 vowel,In phonetics, a vowel is a sound in spoken language, such as an English ah! or oh! o, p

56、ronounced with an open vocal tract so that there is no build-up of air pressure at any point above the glottis. This contrasts with consonants, such as English sh! , where there is a constriction or closure at some point along the vocal tract. A vowel is also understood to be syllabic: an equivalent

57、 open but non-syllabic sound is called a semivowel,semivowel,In phonetics and phonology, a semivowel (or glide滑音) is a sound, such as English /w/ or /j/, that is phonetically similar to a vowel sound but functions as the syllable boundary rather than as the nucleus of a syllable.,南阳师院文学院,元音 vowel,南阳

58、师院文学院,Consonant辅音,Each spoken consonant can be distinguished by several phonetic features: The manner of articulation The place of articulation,南阳师院文学院,The manner of articulation,Stop（plosive）爆破音 p,b,t,d,k,g Nasal 鼻音 m,n, Fricative 摩擦音 f,v,s,z,h Approximant 近音 j,w,r Lateral 边音 l Trill 颤音 r Tap and f

59、lap闪音 Affricate 摩擦音,南阳师院文学院,The place of articulation,Bilabial双唇 Labiodental唇齿 Dental齿音 Alveolar齿龈音 Postalveolar齿龈后音 Retroflex卷舌音 Palatal上颚音 Velar软腭音 Uvular小舌音,南阳师院文学院,Pharyngeal喉音 Glottal声门音 p voiceless bilabial stop b voiced bilabial stop i: high front tense unrounded vowel i high front lax unrounded vowel,南阳师院文学院,南阳师院文学院,(二)phoneme音位,A phoneme is a basic unit of a languages phonology, which is combined with other phonemes to form meaningful units such as words or morphemes. The phoneme can be described as The smallest c