ManagementAccounting.ppt

1、Chapter 3,Overhead Apportionment and Absorption,Overhead,Overhead cost is expenditure on labour, materials or services that cannot be economically identified with a specific saleable cost unit Overhead cost as defined by CIMA Official Terminology,Overhead,制造费用包括产品生产成本中除直接材料和直接工资以外的其余一切生产成本，主要包括企业各个生

2、产单位（车间、分厂）为组织和管理生产所发生的一切费用。（车间生产和行政管理部门的固定资产所发生的固定资产维修费列“管理费用”。）具体有以下项目：各个生产单位管理人员的工资、职工福利费，房屋建筑费、劳动保护费、季节性生产和修理期间的停工损失等等。制造费用一般是间接计入成本，当制造费用发生时一般无法直接判定它所归属的成本计算对象，因而不能直接计入所生产的产品成本中去，而须按费用发生的地点先行归集，月终时再采用一定的方法在各成本计算对象间进行分配，计入各成本计算对象的成本中。,制造费用的主要账务处理,1、生产车间发生的机物料消耗，借记本科目，贷记“原材料” 等科目。 2、发生的生产车间管理人员的工资

3、等职工薪酬，借记本科目，贷记“应付职工薪酬”科目。 3、生产车间计提的固定资产折旧，借记本科目，贷记“累计折旧”科目。 4、生产车间支付的办公费、修理费、水电费等，借记本科目，贷记“银行存款”等科目。 5、发生季节性的停工损失，借记本科目，贷记“原材料”、“应付职工薪酬”、“银行存款”等科目。 6、将制造费用分配计入有关的成本核算对象，借记“生产成本(基本生产成本、辅助生产成本)”、“劳务成本”科目，贷记本科目。 7、季节性生产企业制造费用全年实际发生数与分配数的差额，除其中属于为下一年开工生产作准备的可留待下一年分配外，其余部分实际发生额大于分配额的差额，借记“生产成本基本生产成本” 科目，

4、贷记本科目；实际发生额小于分配额的差额，做相反的会计分录。,Overhead cost key points,The total of all indirect costs Costs incurred that cannot be traced directly to a specific cost unit A shared cost,Why is overhead cost important?,Management need to be aware of the level of expenditure on overheads. If left uncontrolled, the a

5、mount spent can increase year on year, eroding significant proportions of gross profit and reducing competitiveness. Managers need to know: Overhead expenditure per cost centre or department. Overhead costs per unit.,Dealing with overhead cost,Cost centres and cost units,Overhead allocation,When an

6、overhead cost can be identified with a particular cost centre, the whole cost is allotted to that cost centre,Overhead apportionment,The process by which overheads are divided between several cost centres in a fair proportion is referred to as cost apportionment. Each overhead type is examined and a

7、 suitable base for sharing out the cost is established.,Overhead apportionment,The general formula:,Basis for apportioning general overheads,Number of employees (used for personnel office, wages,supervision,welfare, canteen costs). Floor space (used for rent, rates, electricity,repairs and depreciat

8、ion of buildings). Book value of assets (used for depreciation of assets or contents insurance). Volume of space occupied by each cost centre,Basis for service cost centre cost apportionment,Number of material requisitions (used for costs relating to material movements or stores and warehousing). Ho

9、urs of maintenance work done for each cost centre Direct labour hours worked in each production cost centre,Illustration Apportioning overhead,The overhead cost in relation to rent is 1,000 and floor space was chosen as the most suitable basis for sharing or apportioning this cost. The total floor s

10、pace available is 500 square metres (300 for department A and 200 for department B).,Example 3.1 : Apportioning overhead cost,Example 3.1: Apportioning overhead cost,Predetermined overhead absorption rates,A predetermined overhead absorption rate can help management estimate the full cost of a produ

11、ct or service during the year to provide more accurate information for pricing decisions. Predetermined overhead absorption rates are based on budgeted figures. If a predetermined rate is used, the overhead cost per unit is calculated prior to the accounting period, using budgeted figures for overhe

12、ads and units of activity.,Absorption basis,Example: Predetermined overhead absorption rates,Absorption costing,Absorption costing (overhead recovery) can be explained as the process whereby the overheads of the various cost centres are added to cost units orjobs. Absorption costing is the tradition

13、al approach to charging overhead costs to cost units. Absorption costing can be explained as a process for sharing out the overhead costs of each cost centre to each product or service that is provided by that cost centre.,Absorption costing steps,Apportion all overheads to cost centres. Identify th

14、e support or service cost centres, and re-apportion the costs of these to the cost centres involved in producing the products or services. Calculate the overhead absorption rate (OAR) for each cost centre involved in producing products or services, using the most appropriate base. Use the OAR to est

15、ablish the overhead cost per unit.,Step 1 Apportion overhead to each cost centre,The first step involves the allocation and apportionment of overhead costs to each cost centre that has been identified. (see example 3.1),Step 2 Re-apportion support or service centre costs,Organisations may have servi

16、ce departments (canteen, maintenance and administration) which cannot be related to any income producing activity. To find the full cost of a cost unit these department costs should also be absorbed into the unit cost. Therefore service departments must be apportioned to the various departments prod

17、ucing the products or services.,Example 3.2: Re-apportioning service centre costs,Example 3.2: Re-apportioning service centre costs,Step 3 Establishing an overhead absorption rate,This step involves the establishment of an overhead absorption rate that allows the overhead cost of a product or servic

18、e to be calculated. The calculation of an overhead absorption rate requires two variables: The total overhead attributable to a cost centre. The absorption base.,Example 3.3: Overhead absorption rates,Example 3.3: Overhead absorption rates,Step 4 Establishing the overhead cost per unit,Once the over

19、head absorption rate is established then the total cost of a product or service can be calculated. This can be demonstrated by using the data from example 3.3,The absorption process,Under / over absorption,Because the overhead cost per unit is based on estimates, it is almost inevitable that at the

20、end of the accounting year there will have been an under-absorption (recovery) or over-absorption (recovery) of the overhead actually incurred. The estimates for both overhead and activity level are unlikely to be the same as what actually occurred. In an absorption costing system where the predeter

21、mined cost per unit is charged in the accounting records, it is necessary to check the amount under- or over-absorbed (charged) and make an adjustment in the accounts.,Under / over absorption,Example 3.6: Under- or over-recovery of overhead,Arguments for absorption costing,Absorption costing recogni

22、ses that selling price must cover all costs incurred. If absorption costing is used, then organisations should ensure that all costs are included when setting selling prices. Production cannot be achieved without incurring overheads, therefore all such costs, should be included in stock valuations.

23、This is in accordance with the requirements of the accounting standard (SSAP 9) which requires that production cost should include all costs incurred (including fixed overhead) in bringing the product to its current condition and location. Absorption costing recognises the importance of working at f

24、ull capacity. The under- and over-absorption (recovery) explained above can focus attention on the cost effect of actual activity being different to the budget or capacity levels established prior to the period. If an organisation fails to work to full capacity, then the overhead cost per unit may b

25、e higher than necessary. This is because overhead cost is charged out to fewer units.,Arguments against absorption costing,Absorption costing involves the apportionment of overhead, which can be subjective(主观). The resulting information can be misleading for management decision-making. Profits canbe

26、 manipulated in a manufacturing organisation by simply increasing production without actually selling the additional items. Because fixed overhead is included in stock valuation, increasing production without increasing sales will result in a higher closing stock figure and hence a lower cost of sal

27、es and a higher profit figure. Fixed overhead is transferred from the current periods cost (reducing costs in the profit statements) to a future period. Although this approach complies with accounting concepts, it may encourage management to build excessive stock levels to achieve a short-term profi

28、t increase.,Blanket or single overhead absorption rate,A company can take the simplistic view of choosing a single overhead absorption base for the entire organisation, one which is most reflective of the organisations activity. This is known as using a blanket overhead absorption rate or a single f

29、actory-wide rate. This is a simplistic approach and not very accurate.,Activity Based Costing (ABC)以作业为基础的成本会计(作业成本法),Activity based costing,An alternative method to absorption costing, called Activity Based Costing (ABC) has emerged. It was developed in the Late 1980s to address the requirements of

30、 a more modern manufacturing environment.,The changing environment,Cost ,1960s,2000+,ABC-新制造环境冲击传统成本会计,随着企业IT技术的运用，MRPII、ERP、CIM、JIT等系统应用范围不断扩大， 企业新制造环境逐渐形成。 企业使用计算机管理信息系统来管理经营与生产，最大限度地发挥现有设备、资源、人、技术的作用，最大限度地产生企业经济效益，已成为制造业企业的一致选择。从最早的物料需求计划MRP (Material Requirements Planning)、制造资源计划MRP II(Manufactu

31、ring Resource Planning)到近年出现的企业资源规划ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning)等，为越来越多的企业采用。目前流行的MRP 有助于管理当局进行及时、有效的投资与生产经营决策；ERP则是建立在信息技术基础上，以系统化的管理思想，为企业决策层及员工提供决策运行手段的管理平台。,The changing environment,ABC-传统的成本会计技术与方法造成的后果,1、产品成本计算不准 因为在新制造环境下，机器和电脑辅助生产系统在某些工作上已经取代了人工，人工成本比重从传统制造环境下的2040降到了现在的不足5。但同时制造费用剧增并呈多

32、样化，其分摊标准如果只用人工小时已难于正确反映各种产品的成本。 2、成本控制可能产生负功能行为 传统成本会计中将预算与实际业绩编成差异报告，即将实际发生的成本与标准成本相比较。但在新制造环境下，这一控制系统将产生负功能的行为，例如为获得有 利的效率差异，可能导致企业片面追求大量生产，造成存货的增加；另外，为获得有利价格差异，采购部门可能购买低质量的原材料，或进行大宗采购，造成质量问 题或材料库存积压等等。,作业成本法的产生与发展,作业成本法（Activity-Based Costing），是一种通过对所有作业活动进行追踪动态反映，计量作业和成本对象的成本，评价作业业绩和资源的利用情况的成本计算

33、和管理方法。它以作业为中心，根据作业对资源耗费的情况将资源的成本分配到作业中，然后根据产品和服务所耗用的作业量，最终将成本分配到产品与服务。是将企业一般管理费用按照 更现实的基础进行分摊而非按照直接劳动工时或机械工时。达成该目标的工具是作业成本法（ABC）会计系统，首先基于实施的作业累加成本，然后按成本动因分 摊成本到产品或其他要素，如客户、市场或项目。,作业成本法的产生与发展,对作业成本的研究最早可追溯到上世纪四十年代，最早提出的概念是“作业会计”（Activity-Based Accounting或Activity Accounting）。美国会计学家埃里克.科勒(Eric Kohler)

34、教授于1941年在杂志发表论文首次对作业、作业账户设置等问题进行了讨论，并提出“每项作业都 设置一个账户”，“作业就是一个组织单位对一项工程、一个大型建设项目、一项规划以及一项重要经营的各个具体活动所做出的贡献”。随后的乔治.斯托布斯 (George.J.Staubus)教授认为，“作业会计”是一种和决策有用性目标相联系的会计，研究作业会计首先应明确“作业”、“成本”和“会计目 标-决策有用性”三个概念。1971年斯托布斯在具有重大影响的一书中，对“作业”、“成 本”、“作业成本计算”等概念作了全面阐述，引发了80年代以后西方会计学者对传统的成本会计系统的全面反思。,作业成本法的理论基础,作业

35、成本法的理论基础是认为生产过程应该描述为：生产导致作业发生，产品耗用作业，作业耗用资源，从而导致成本发生。这与传统的制造成本法中产品耗用成本 的理念是不同的。这样，作业成本法就以作业成本的核算追踪了产品形成和成本积累的过程，对成本形成的“前因后果”进行追本溯源：从“前因” 上讲，由于成本由作业引起，对成本的分析应该是对价值链的分析，而价值链贯穿于企业经营的所有环节，所以成本分析首先从市场需求和产品设计环节开始；从 “后果”上讲，要搞清作业的完成实际耗费了多少资源，这些资源是如何实现价值转移的，最终向客户（即市场）转移了多少价值、收取了多少价值，成本分析才算 结束。由此出发，作业成本计算法使成本

36、的研究更加深入，成本信息更加详细化、更具有可控性。,Key points on ABC,Traditional overhead recovery basis (direct labour/cost particularly) may have little relevance to overhead and the complexity of the modern business environment. ABC is based on the concept that it is the activities involved in providing a product or serv

37、ice that incur cost. It is therefore more accurate to charge overhead cost based on the amount of activity consumed when the product or service is provided. The ABC approach is more reflective and accurate, as it identifies each activity that occurs in an organisation and charges overhead to each pr

38、oduct on the basis of its consumption, or use, of each activity.,The objective of ABC,The objective of activity based costing is to arrive at a more accurate product cost. This is achieved by assigning overhead cost to the activities carried out within the organisation and then relating how often th

39、ese activities occur for each product or service produced.,ABC implementation considerations,Decision to implement is significant as generally ABC systems are more complex and sophisticated. A detailed cost benefit analysis should be carried out before a commitment to the introduction of ABC is give

40、n. It is important that senior management buy into the system from the onset and encourage its implementation throughout the organisation. It is essential that the resources necessary for implementation of the new system are made available. The implementation of an ABC approach requires a thorough e

41、xamination of the organisation to identify every activity that occurs. A cost pool should be created for each activity and the most suitable cost driver is established. The terms cost pools and cost drivers are central in explaining the concept.,Cost pools,Cost pools are similar in principle to cost

42、 centres in traditional systems, however, cost pools relate to activities regardless of conventional departmental boundaries. A cost pool should be created for each activity identified. The costs associated with each activity are pooled together accumulating the total cost of the activity,Cost drive

43、rs,The key idea behind ABC is to focus attention on those factors that cause or drive costs. These factors are known as cost drivers. A cost driver is the event and factors, which cause an activity to occur and to consume resources.,Implementing ABC,ABC steps,Apportion all overheads to cost pools. C

44、alculate cost driver rates for each cost pool. Establish the overhead cost per unit.,作业成本法的成本计算程序,1.定义、识别和选择主要作业； 2.归集资源费用到同质成本库。这些资源通常可以从企业的总分类帐中得到，但总分类帐并无执行各项作业所消耗资源的成本； 3.选择成本动因，计算成本库分配率。从中选择一个成本动因作为计算成本分配率的基准。成本计量要考虑成本动因材料是否易于获得；成本动因和消耗资源之间相关程度越高，现有的成本被歪曲的可能性就会越小； 4.计算成本库分配率； 5.把作业库中的费用分配到产品上去；某

45、产品某成本动因成本=某成本库分配率X成本动因数量 6.计算产品成本。作业成本计算的目标最终要计算出产品的成本。直接成本可单独作为一个作业成本库处理。将产品分摊的制造费用，加上产品直接成本，为产品成本。某产品成本=成本动因成本+直接成本,Example 3.7: ABC cost pools and cost drivers,Example 3.7: ABC cost pools and cost drivers,Example 3.8: ABC to establish unit cost,Example 3.8: ABC to establish unit cost,The ABC proc

46、ess,More than a product costing system,ABC provides a revolutionary approach to cost control by analysing costs based on activities rather than traditional departmental boundaries. Management attention focuses now on the activities required and their cost. Unnecessary activities can be eliminated an

47、d costly activities examined with a view to significantly reducing costs. While ABC was initially popular in manufacturing due to its provision of superior product costs and stock valuations, the cost control aspect has resulted in many service organisations also implementing ABC systems.,Advantages

48、 of ABC,Product costs produced by an ABC system should be more accurate than those produced by an absorption costing system. ABC is approved as a method of valuing stock in accordance with accounting standards. ABC systems produce useful information for decision-making. As ABC systems focus on ident

49、ifying activities in an organisation, unnecessary activities or activities that do not add value can be identified, adjusted, or eliminated. The ABC approach provides a new emphasis on cost control by focusing attention on the cost of each activity. The ABC approach is useful in cost reduction progr

50、ammes.,Criticisms of ABC,ABC systems are generally complex, difficult and expensive to implement. ABC systems can be time consuming and expensive to administer. An ABC system should not be introduced unless it can provide additional information which management can use. Where an organisation deals in similar products or provides a similar service level to all clients, ABC will provide little benefit as a costing system, because it produces similar costs to other simpler approaches. Some argue the merits of implementing ABC, questioning if it actually contri