语言学导论前三单元概要整理

1、Unit1 Introduction,What is linguistics? 什么是语言学？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general. 语言学是对语言科学地进行研究的学科。语言学所要研究的不是某一种特定的语言，而是人类所有语言的特性。 The scope of linguistics 语言学研究的范畴Phonetics语音学Phonology音系学Morphology

2、形态学Syntax句法学Semantics语义学Pragmatics语用学Sociolinguistics社会语言学Psycholinguistics心理语言学Applied linguistics应用语言学,Prescriptive vs. descriptive 规定性与描述性Descriptive：a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.对人们使用的语言进行客观描述与分析 Prescriptive: it aims lay down rules for “correct” beh

3、avior.Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic, and mainly spoken data.Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on “high” written language Synchronic vs. diachronic 共时性与历史性The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study共时研究是对语言的静态

4、特征的研究。 The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study历时研究主要是对语言变化和发展的研究 In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.,Some important distinctions in linguistics,Speech and writing 口头语与书面语Speech enjoys priority over writing in m

5、odern linguistics study for the following reasons: (1) speech precedes writing in terms of evolution(2) a large amount of communication is carried out in speech tan in writing(3) speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language,Language and parole 语言与言语Language refers to the abstrac

6、t linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.语言是语言社区所有成员所共有的抽象的语言系统 Parole refers to the realization of language in actual use.言语是语言体系的实际使用，是具体的。,What is language? 什么是语言？Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是一种用于人类交际的任意的语音符号系统。 Design

7、features of language 语言的甄别特征American linguist Charles Hockett specified 12 design features:1) arbitrariness 任意性2) productivity 创造性3) duality 二重性4) displacement移位性5) cultural transmission 文化传递性,Competence and performance 能力与运用Chomsky defines competence as the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his

8、 language. “能力”指一个理想的语言使用者所具有的语言规则的知识 Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. “使用”是“能力”的具体使用，是在交际活动中语言知识具体的体现。,1） 任意性：它指音与义之间没有逻辑联系。比如说，不同的语言使用不同的音指相同的事物。 2） 创造性：语言的创造性主要表现在语言使用者能够以有限的语言规则为基础说出和理解无限的句子，包括他们以前从没有听说过的句子。 3） 二重性：它指语言在结构上存在两个层次：低层次和高层次。在低层次是一个个

9、没有意义的音，如/p/,/g/,/i/等，但是这些处在低层次的没有意义的音可以依照一定的语言规则结合在一起形成语言体系的高层次，即：有意义的单位，如词素，单词等。 4） 移位性：移位性指人类可以使用语言来谈论过去的事情，现在的事情或将来的事情；语言也可以用来谈论我们客观世界中的事情，或假想世界中的事情。总之，语言的使用可以脱离交际的直接情景语境，从而不受语言时空距离的影响。 5） 文化传递性：文化的传递性是指，虽然人类习得语言的能力有遗传因素的原因，但是语言体系具体内容的习得不是通过遗传来传递的，而是要通过后天的学习来获得。,Unit2 Phonology,Two major media of

10、 communication: speech and writingThe limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language. 用于人类语言交际的声音称为语音，这些数目有限的一组语音构成了语言的声音媒介。 Phonetics语音学: is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is

11、concerned with all the sounds that occur in the worlds language. 语音学研究的对象是语言的声音媒介， 即人类语言中使用的全部语音。 Three branches of phonetics : articulatory phonetics 发音语音学（most highly developed）, auditory phonetics 听觉语音学and acoustic phonetics 声学语音学,Organs of speech 发音器官The articulatory apparatus of a human being a

12、re contained in three important areas or cavities:The pharyngeal cavity咽腔-the throatThe oral cavity口腔-the mouthThe nasal cavity 鼻腔-the noseVibration of the vocal cords (声带) results in a quality of speech sounds called “voicing” 浊音，which is a feature of all vowels 元音 and some consonants 辅音。,单词补充：01)

13、velum: The soft palate. 软腭02) uvula: A small, conical, fleshy mass of tissue suspended from the center of the soft palate. 小舌，悬雍垂悬垂在软腭中央的小的圆锥状肉块03) larynx: n. 喉04) vocal cord: 声带05) membrane: n. A thin, pliable layer of tissue covering surfaces or separating or connecting regions, structures, or org

14、ans of an animal or a plant. 膜薄而柔软的组织层，覆盖在表面或分割连接各种区域、结构或动植物器官,06) the soft palate: 软腭07) the hard palate: 硬腭08) the teeth ridge: 齿龈09) alveolus: A tooth socket in the jawbone 牙槽颚骨处的牙床10) the teeth: 牙齿11) the lips: 上下唇12) blade of tongue: 舌面13) back of tongue: 舌根14) pharyngeal cavity: 咽腔15) nasal ca

15、vity: 鼻腔16) velar: Articulated with the back of the tongue touching or near the soft palate, as (g) in good and (k) in cup.软腭音的用舌头后部挂触或靠近软腭清楚地发音的，如在 good中的(g)以及在 cup中的(k)17) the tip of the tongue: 舌尖18) the upper front teeth: 上齿19) the roof of the mouth: 上颚20) the lower lip: 下唇,音标宽式和严式标音法Internation

16、al Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) 国际音标 The vowels (monophthongs and diphthongs) 元音（单元音 it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. 音系学研究的重点是特定语言的语音体系，语音表达意义作用。 Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interest

17、ed in all the speech sounds used in all human languages. 语音学研究的是人类所有语言的语音，旨在对语音进行描述和分类。,Phone，phoneme and allophone语音，音位，音位变体,Phones, which can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. 语音是语音学研究的单位， 是一个个具体的声音。 A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of di

18、stinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. 音位是音系学研究的单位，是抽象的概念， 每一个音位是一组语音特征的集合体，音位具有区别意义的作用。 The different which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. 音位变体是一个音位在特定的语音环境力的具体

19、体现， 同一音位在不同语音环境里体现为不同的变体，也就是语音。,Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair音位对立，互补分布，最小对立对,rope and robe that /P/ and /b/ can occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning; therefore they are in phonemic contrast. 可以出现在不同语音组合中的同一为止， 产生意义差别。 /P/ and /Ph/ these two al

20、lophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. pen and ben 最小对立对指出现在同一位置上的一个音之外其余都相同的两个语音组合。,some

21、 rules in phonology,Sequential rules 序列规则 : blik, klib , bilk, kilb is possible. But lbki, ilbk, bkil , ilkb not possible Assimilation rules 同化规则: The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. Deletion rule

22、省略规则: Sign, design, there is no g sound Signature, designation the g is pronounced. Delete a g when it occurs before a final nasal constant.,Suprasegmental features- stress, tone, intonation超切分特征重音， 声调，语调,The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental feat

23、ures. 超切分特征指切分即单音层面以上的音系特征。,Stress（重音）,Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. Sentence stress refers to the relative force given to the components of sentence. Th

24、e parts of speech that are normally stressed in an English sentence are nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs, numerals and demonstrative pronouns; the other categories of words like articles, person pronouns, auxiliary verbs, prepositions, and conjunctions are usually not stressed. 重音在英语的位置区分意义。句子

25、的重音是指相对力量给组件的句子。演讲的部分,通常强调在一个英文句子是名词,主要动词、形容词、副词、数字和指示代词;其他类别的词像文章、人代词,辅助动词、介词、和连词通常不强调。,Intonation(语调）,Spoken in the falling-tone. Version(1)simply states a fact,i.e.the book in question is not the one he wants. Version(2),said in the rising tone,indicates uncertainty on the part of the speaker; he

26、 is asking the question:Is that not the book he wants】 Version(3),spoken in the fall-rise tone, indicates that apart from what is said literally, there is an implied message. Within one intonation unit,the nucleus normally falls on the last stressed syllable. Shifting the intonation to another sylla

27、ble,normally stresses or unstressed, will cause difference in meaning.,Morphology词素,Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. It is divided into two sub-branches: inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morpho

28、logy. 形态学研究单词的内部结构以及构词规则， 有屈折形态学和词汇形态学两大分支。,Open class and closed class开放类词和封闭类词,In English, nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs make up the largest part of vocabulary. They are the content words of a languages, which are called open class words. Conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns co

29、nsist of the grammatical or functional words, which are called closed class words.,Morpheme:the smallest meaningful unit of language. 语素：语言最小的意义单位。 Free Morpheme: A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself. (independent) 自由语素可以作为单词独立使用。 Bound Morpheme: A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand

30、by itself. 粘着语素必须和其他语素结合成单词,Bound Morpheme includes two types: (1) root (2)Affix(词缀) The root constitutes the core of the word and carries the major component of its meaning. 词根构成核心词，携带着它的意义的主要部分。 Affixes do not belong to a lexical category and are always bound morphemes. 词缀不属于一个词汇范畴而是粘着语素。,Inflecti

31、onal affixes (屈折词缀)(inflectional morphemes):affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional. Derivational affixes(派生词缀) A) prefix: A prefix comes before words. B)suffix：An adjective suffix（形容词后缀） that is added to the stem, whatever classis belongs to , the

32、 result will be an adjective.,Affixation词缀法（Derivation派生法）：adding word-formation or derivational affixes to stem. Prefixation前缀：Its the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems. 1)表示否定nagative prefixes: un-,non,in-,dis,a- etc. 2)reversative or privative prefixes: un-,de-dis etc. 3)表示贬义pejorative prefixes: mis-, mal-, pseudo- etc. 4)表示程度degree or size prefixes: