五章商业银行贷款管理(对外经济贸易大学).ppt

1、第五章 商业银行贷款管理,对外经济贸易大学 金融学院 何自云 ,第五章 商业银行贷款管理,Chapter 15 Credit Policy and Loans Characteristics Chapter 16 Evaluating Commercial Loan Requests Chapter 17 Evaluating Consumer Loans 商业银行法中有关贷款的规定（2003年12月） 贷款通则（征求意见稿）（2004年5月） 商业银行授信工作尽职指引（2004年7月16日） 贷款风险分类指导原则（2001年12月24日） 贷款损失准备计提指引（2002年1月1日） 担保法（

2、1995年10月1日） 个人住房贷款管理办法（1998年5月15日）,Chapter 15 Credit Policy and Loans Characteristics,The Credit Process Business Development and Credit Analysis Credit Execution and Administration Credit Review,The credit process,The fundamental objective of lending is to make profitable loans with minimal risk. M

3、anagement should target specific industries or markets in which lending officers have expertise. The somewhat competing goals of loan volume and loan quality must be balanced with the banks liquidity requirements, capital constraints, and rate of return objectives. The credit process relies on each

4、banks systems and controls that allow management and credit officers to evaluate risk and return trade-offs.,The credit process,Loan policy: formalizes lending guidelines Credit philosophy: how much risk and the form Credit culture: the fundamental principles Three potentially different credit cultu

5、res: Values-driven Current-profit driven Market-share driven The credit process includes three functions Business development and credit analysis Underwriting or credit execution and administration Credit review,Business development and credit analysis,Market research Advertising, public relations O

6、ffice call programs Obtain financial statements, borrowing resolution, credit reports. Financial statement and cash flow analysis Evaluate collateral Line officer makes recommendation on accepting/rejecting loan Five Cs of good credit and five Cs of bad credit,Five Cs of good credit,Character: hones

7、ty and trustworthiness. Capital: wealth position measured by financial soundness and market standing. Capacity: legal standing and managements expertise. Conditions: economic environment or industry-specific factors Collateral: secondary source of repayment or security in the case of default.,Five C

8、s of bad credit,Complacency: the tendency to assume Carelessness: monitor a borrowers progress and identify problems as early as possible Communication: between management and loan officers Contingencies: failure to identify downside risk Competition: follow competitors behavior rather than maintain

9、ing the banks own credit standards.,Credit execution and administration,Loan committee reviews proposal/recommendation Accept/reject decision made, terms negotiated Loan agreement prepared with collateral documentation Borrower signs agreement, turns over collateral, receives loan proceeds Perfect s

10、ecurity interest File materials in credit file Process loan payments, obtain periodic financial statements, call on borrower.,Credit review,Review loan documentation Monitor compliance with loan agreement: Positive and negative loan covenants; Delinquencies in loan payments; Discuss nature of delinq

11、uency or other problems with borrower. Institute corrective action Modify credit terms Obtain additional capital, collateral, guarantees Call loan,Chapter 16 Evaluating Commercial Loan Requests,Fundamental Credit Issues Character of the Borrower and Quality of Data Provided Use of Loan Proceeds Loan

12、 Amount The Primary Source and Timing of Repayment Collateral Evaluating Credit Request: A Four-Part Process Overview of Management, Operations, and the Firms Industry Common Size and Financial Ratio Analysis Cash Flow Analysis Financial Projections Risk-Classification Scheme,Fundamental credit issu

13、es,Regardless of the type of loan, all credit requests mandate a systematic analysis of the borrowers ability to repay. When evaluating loan requests, bankers can make two types of errors in judgment. Extending credit to a customer who ultimately defaults. Denying a loan to a customer who ultimately

14、 would repay the debt. In both cases, the bank loses a customer and its profits are less.,Five fundamental issues,Five fundamental issues Character and data quality Use of loan proceeds Loan amount Source and timing of repayment Collateral In addition to these issues, credit analysis should examine

15、risks that are unique to each loan. Quality of mgt; the soundness of the business; sensitivity to economic conditions; the firms relationship with other creditors; etc.,Character and quality of data,The foremost issue in assessing credit risk is determining a borrowers commitment and ability to repa

16、y debts. An individuals honesty, integrity, and work ethic typically evidence commitment. For a business, commitment is evidenced by the owners and senior management. Whenever there is deception or a lack of credibility, a bank should not do business with the borrower. It is often difficult to ident

17、ify dishonest borrowers. The best indicators are the borrowers financial history and personal references. Audited financial data.,Use of loan proceeds,Loan proceeds should be used for legitimate business operating purposes Speculative asset purchases and debt substitutions should be avoided. The tru

18、e need and use of the loan proceeds determines the loan maturity, the anticipated source and timing of repayment, and the appropriate collateral. One common pitfall is to focus too much on collateral and end up financing a firms long-term needs with short-term notes.,Loan Amount,The amount of credit

19、 required depends on the use of the proceeds and the availability of internal sources of funds. Borrowers often ask for too little in requesting a loan and return later for more funds. The required loan amount is a function of the initial cash deficiency and the pattern of future cash flows.,Primary

20、 source and timing of repayment,Loans are repaid from cash flows. Four basic sources of cash flows: Liquidation of assets Cash flow from normal operations New debt issues New equity issues Credit analysis evaluates the risk that a borrowers future cash flows will not be sufficient to meet mandatory

21、expenditures for continued operations and interest and principal payments on the loan.,Collateral,Collateral is the security a bank has in assets owned and pledged by the borrower against a debt in the event of default. Liquidating collateral is clearly a second best source of repayment for three re

22、asons: There are significant transactions costs associated with foreclosure. (Time, money.) Bankruptcy laws allow borrowers to retain possession of the collateral long after they have defaulted. When the bank takes possession of the collateral, it deprives the borrower of the opportunity to salvage

23、the company.,What can be collateral?,Virtually any assets, or the general capacity to generate cash flow, can be used as collateral. Collateral must exhibit three features: Its value should always exceed the outstanding principal on a loan. A lender should be able to easily take possession of collat

24、eral and have a ready market for sale. A lender must be able to clearly mark collateral as its own. The claim must be legal and clear. Careful loan documentation is required to perfect the banks interest in the collateral.,Evaluation: A four-part process,The purpose of credit analysis is to identify

25、 and define the lenders risk in making a loan. Four-part process: Overview of management, operations, and the firms industry Common size and financial ratio analysis Analysis of cash flow Projections and analysis of the borrowers financial condition,Step 1: Overview of management, operations and ind

26、ustry,Background information on the firms operations Organizational and business structure Products or services provided Competitive position in the marketplace Business and industry outlook report Management character and quality The nature of the borrowers loan request and the quality of the finan

27、cial data provided.,Step 2: Common size and financial ratio analysis,Common size ratio: divide by total assets (balance sheet) or net sales (income statement). It is adjusted for size and thus enables comparisons across firms in the same industry or line of business. The figures can be distorted, if

28、 a firm has one balance sheet or income statement item that differs sharply from industry standards.,Financial ratio analysis,Four categories Liquidity ratios: indicate its ability to meet its short-term obligations and continue operations. Activity ratios: signal how efficiently a firm uses assets

29、to generate sales. Leverage ratios: indicate the mix of the firms financing between debt and equity and potential earnings volatility. Profitability ratios: indicate the firms sales and earnings performance (ROE, ROA).,Step 3: Cash flow analysis,Cash flow estimates are compared to principal and inte

30、rest payments and discretionary cash expenditures to assess a firms borrowing capacity and financial strength. Cash flows: Operating activities Investing activities Financing activities,Step 4: Financial projections,The previous 3 stages: historical performance The final step addresses the future co

31、nditions. In order to understand the range of potential outcomes, an analyst should make forecasts that incorporate different assumptions about the future. Sensitivity analysis:three alternative scenarios Best case scenario Worst case scenario Most likely scenario,Risk-classification scheme,After ev

32、aluating the borrowers risk profile along all dimensions, a loan is placed in a rating category ranked according to the degree of risk. Such a system is used for credit granting and pricing decisions.,Chapter 17Evaluating Consumer Loans,Analysis of consumer loans differ from that of commercial loans

33、: When evaluating measurable aspects of requests, banks are addressing the same issues. Banks have to deal with a large number of distinct borrowers with different personalities and financial characteristics. Consumer loans differ so much in design that no comprehensive analytical format applies to

34、all loans. For most consumer loans, there is no formal analysis of individual borrower characteristics unless a credit scoring model is used. Installment loans are treated much like commercial loans.,Credit analysis (contd),Analysis of consumer loans differ from that of commercial loans (contd): The

35、 quality of financial data is lower: Unaudited The primary source of repayment is current income, which may be highly volatile. The net effect is that character is more difficult to assess, but extremely important.,Character,The most important yet difficult to asses is character: the customers desir

36、e to repay a loan. The only quantitative info available is the borrowers application and credit record. Banks rely heavily on subjective appraisals. Obtain personal references Verify employment Check the accuracy of the application If the officer determines that a potential customer is dishonest, th

37、e loan is rejected automatically.,Capital,Capital refers to the individuals wealth position and is closely related to capacity, an individuals financial ability to meet loan payments in addition to normal living expenses and other debt obligations. For almost all consumer loans, the individuals inco

38、me serves as the primary source of repayment. Minimum down payment requirements Maximum allowable debt-service to income ratios Stability of the income source,Collateral,Secondary source of repayment. Collateral may be The asset financed by the loan Other assets owned by the individual The personal

39、guarantee of a consigner on the loan,Two additional Cs,Customer relationships and competition. A banks prior relationship with a customer reveals info about past credit and deposit experience that is useful in assessing willingness and ability to repay. Competition has an impact by affecting the pri

40、cing of a loan: Undercut competitors rates in order to attract new business.,Evaluation procedures,Judgemental and credit scoring. With a pure judgemental analysis, the loan officer subjectively interprets the info in light of the banks lending guidelines and accepts or rejects the loan. With a pure

41、 quantitative analysis, or credit scoring model, the loan officer grades the loan request according to a statistically sound model that assigns points to selected characteristics of the prospective borrower. Accept/reject thresholds Gap: a decision is made based on judgemental factors,Credit scoring

42、: plus v.s. minus,The benefits include: Lower costs if scoring and decision making are done mechanically Timely decisions Avoidance of discrimination The primary difficulty: The credit scoring models must be statistically verified and continually updated, which can be expensive.,商业银行法中有关贷款的规定,第35条：“

43、商业银行贷款，应当实行审贷分离、分级审批的制度。” 第36条：“商业银行贷款，借款人应当提供担保。经商业银行审查、评估，确认借款人资信良好，确能偿还贷款的，可以不提供担保。” 第37条：“商业银行贷款，应当与借款人订立书面合同。合同应当约定贷款种类、借款用途、金额、利率、还款期限、还款方式、违约责任和双方认为需要约定的其他事项。”,贷款利率与比例管理,第38条：“商业银行应当按照中国人民银行规定的贷款利率的上下限，确定贷款利率。 第39条：“商业银行贷款，应当遵守下列资产负债比例管理的规定： 资本充足率不得低于8% 贷款余额与存款余额的比例不得超过75% 流动性资产余额与流动性负债余额的比例不

44、得低于25% 对同一借款人的贷款余额与商业银行资本余额的比例不得超过10%。”,关系人贷款与银行贷款自主性,第40条：“商业银行不得向关系人发放信用贷款；向关系人发放担保贷款的条件不得优于其他借款人同类贷款的条件。 前款所称关系人是指：商业银行的董事、监事、管理人员、信贷业务人员及其近亲属；前项所列人员投资或者担任高级管理职务的公司、企业和其他经济组织。” 第41条：“任何单位和个人不得强令商业银行发放贷款或者提供担保。商业银行有权拒绝任何单位和个人强令要求其发放贷款或者提供担保。”,执行担保所获财产的处置,第42条：“借款人到期不归还担保贷款的，商业银行依法享有要求保证人归还贷款本金和利息或

45、者就该担保物优先受偿的权利。商业银行因行使抵押权、质权而取得的不动产或者股权，应当自取得之日起二年内予以处分。” 第43条：“商业银行在中华人民共和国境内不得从事信托投资和证券经营业务，不得向非自用不动产投资或者向非银行金融机构和企业投资，但国家另有规定的除外。”,贷款通则（征求意见稿）,贷款按期限长短划分为短期贷款、中期贷款和长期贷款。 贷款按有无担保划分为信用贷款和担保贷款。 担保贷款包括保证贷款、抵押贷款、质押贷款。 第25条：“贷款人自主审查和决定贷款，有权拒绝任何法人、其他组织或自然人强令其发放贷款。” 第26条：“贷款人应告示所经营的贷款种类、期限和利率水平，并自接到贷款申请之日起

46、30日内，答复借款人的借款申请受理与否。”,贷款管理,第27条：“贷款人应对借款人账户、资产、财务状况等商业秘密以及个人隐私等情况保密，但法律另有规定或当事人另有约定的除外。” 第29条：“借款人无法按照合同约定归还一个或多个贷款人的一笔或多笔贷款时，所有贷款人都可以按照合同约定要求其提前还款。” 第30条：“在贷款授信额度确定后，对未使用的授信额度，贷款人应根据合同的相关规定，收取一定比例的承诺费和其他相关费用。”,贷款管理,第43条：“贷款人应当对单一借款人及其关联企业的贷款与承诺、承兑、担保等表内外业务统一确定综合授信额度，集中控制风险。” 第47条：“贷款人应当根据贷款风险状况将贷款分

47、为正常、关注、次级、可疑和损失类。贷款人应当及时催收逾期的贷款。对项目贷款和公司贷款根据逾期天数将贷款分为逾期90天、180天、270天、360天和360天以上五个档次进行统计，并作为贷款质量分类的重要参考指标。对零售贷款应比照上述规定对逾期天数作更细致的划分。”,贷款管理,第48条：“对借款人不能依照合同约定归还贷款本息或不能落实还本付息事宜的，贷款人应当及时进行债权保全，必要时可以依法在新闻媒体披露或采取诉讼等法律措施。” 第49条：“贷款人可以接受借款人、保证人、抵押人或出质人以非货币资产作价偿还贷款。作价金额不足以清偿贷款本息的，借款人应当继续清偿未偿还部分；作价金额超过未清偿贷款本息

48、的，贷款人应当向借款人支付超出部分的价款。贷款人取得的非货币资产，应当遵循审慎原则及时处置。”,贷款转让,第62条：“贷款转让，包括保留追索权的贷款转让和不保留追索权的贷款转让。受让方保留追索权的贷款转让，转让方应在表外记载，按照或有负债的有关规定管理和披露。” 第64条：“贷款受让方必须是经国务院银行业监督管理机构批准可以从事贷款业务的金融机构。除此之外的贷款转让，必须经国务院银行业监督管理机构批准。” 第66条：“贷款人将贷款债权全部或部分转让给第三人的，应当自转让之日起30日内书面形式或以公告形式通知借款人。” 第67条：“借款人将贷款债务全部或部分转让给第三人的，必须事先取得贷款人的书

49、面同意。”,商业银行授信工作尽职指引,第2条：“本指引中的授信指对非自然人客户的表内外授信。表内授信包括贷款、项目融资、贸易融资、贴现、透支、保理、拆借和回购等；表外授信包括贷款承诺、保证、信用证、票据承兑等。” 第3条：“授信工作指商业银行从事客户调查、业务受理、分析评价、授信决策与实施、授信后管理与问题授信管理等各项授信业务活动。” “授信工作尽职指商业银行授信工作人员按照本指引规定履行了最基本的尽职要求。”,授信工作尽职要求,客户调查和业务受理尽职要求 目标客户要求、调查与信息核实 分析与评价尽职要求 财务因素与非财务因素、第二还款来源 授信决策与实施尽职要求 授信后管理和问题授信处理尽

50、职要求 预警信号 授信工作尽职调查要求,贷款风险分类指导原则,第2条：“本指导原则所指的贷款分类，是指按照风险程度将贷款划分为不同档次的过程。通过贷款分类应达到以下目标 揭示贷款的实际价值和风险程度，真实、全面、动态地 反映贷款的质量； 发现贷款发放、管理、监控、催收以及不良贷款管理中存在的问题，加强信贷管理； 为判断贷款损失准备金是否充足提供依据。”,风险分类：后三类为不良贷款,正常：借款人能够履行合同，没有足够理由怀疑贷款本息不能按时足额偿还。 关注：尽管借款人目前有能力偿还贷款本息，但存在一些可 能对偿还产生不利影响的因素。 次级：借款人的还款能力出现明显问题，完全依靠其正常营业收入无法

51、足额偿还贷款本息，即使执行担保，也可能会造成一定损失。 可疑：借款人无法足额偿还贷款本息，即使执行担保，也肯定要造成较大损失。 损失：在采取所有可能的措施或一切必要的法律程序之后，本息仍然无法收回，或只能收回极少部分。,风险分类考虑的主要因素,第5条：“使用贷款风险分类法对贷款质量进行分类，实际上是判断借款人及时足额归还贷款本息的可能性，考虑的主要因素包括借款人的还款能力、还款记录、还款意愿、贷款担保、贷款偿还的法律责任、银行的信贷管理。借款人的还款能力是一个综合概念，包括借款人现金流量、财务状况、影响还款能力的非财务因素等。 ”,贷款分类的时间,第13条：“对贷款分类时，不能用客户的信用评级

52、代替对贷款的分类，信用评级只能作为贷款分类的参考因素。” 第14条：“如果影响借款人财务状况或贷款偿还的因素发生重大变化，应及时调整对贷款的分类。商业银行应至少每半年对全部贷款进行一次分类。对不良贷款应严密监控，加大分析和分类的频率，根据贷款的风险状况采取相应的管理措施。”,贷款分类的理论定义和现实作用,理论定义 贷款分类的档次与标准，是衡量贷款内在风险的一种价值尺度，有如其它各种计量单位（度量衡）。 银行的信贷分析和管理人员，或监管当局的检查人员，综合能够获得的全部信息并运用最佳判断，根据贷款的风险程度对贷款质量作出评价的过程（或结果）。 现实作用 促进银行稳健经营 加强银行监管 加强市场约

53、束 建立处理机制,贷款损失准备计提指引,第2条：“银行应当按照谨慎会计原则，合理估计贷款可能发生的损失，及时计提贷款损失准备。贷款损失准备包括一般准备、专项准备和特种准备。” 一般准备是根据全部贷款余额的一定比例计提的、用于弥补尚未识别的可能性损失的准备。 专项准备是指根据贷款风险分类指导原则，对贷款进行风险分类后，按每笔贷款损失的程度计提的用于弥补专项损失的准备。 特种准备指针对某一国家、地区、行业或某一类贷款风险计提的准备。,准备金的计提,第4条：“银行应按季计提一般准备，一般准备年末余额应不低于年末贷款余额的1%。”“一般准备可计入附属资本。” 第5条：“银行可参照以下比例按季计提专项准

54、备 关注（2%）、次级（25%）、可疑（50%）、损失（100%）。其中，次级和可疑可上下浮动20% 第6条：“特种准备由银行根据不同类别（如国别、行业）贷款的特殊风险情况、风险损失概率及历史经验，自行确定按季计提比例。” 第9条：“贷款损失准备必须根据贷款的风险程度足额提取。损失准备提取不足的，不得进行税后利润分配。”,审慎的贷款损失准备制度,第8条：“银行应以贷款风险分类为基础，建立审慎的贷款损失准备制度。 银行应建立贷款风险识别制度，按贷款风险分类的要求，定期对贷款进行分类，及时识别贷款风险，评估贷款的内在损失。 银行应建立贷款损失准备的评估制度，在贷款分类的基础上，定期对贷款损失准备的

55、充足性进行评估，及时计提贷款损失准备，使之与贷款的内在损失评估结果相适应，准确核算经营成果，增强抵御风险的能力。 银行应建立贷款损失核销制度，及时对损失类贷款或贷款的损失部分进行核销。贷款损失的核销要建立严格的审核、审批制度，对于已核销损失类贷款，银行应继续保留对贷款的追索权。”,中华人民共和国担保法,第2条：“本法规定的担保方式为保证、抵押、质押、留置和定金。” 第3条：“第三人为债务人向债权人提供担保时，可以要求债务人提供反担保。反担保适用本法担保的规定。” 第4条：“担保合同是主合同的从合同，主合同无效，担保合同无效。”,保证,第6条：“本法所称保证，是指保证人和债权人约定，当债务人不履行债务时，保证人按照约定履行债务或者承担责任的行为。” 第7-10条：“具有代为