医学英语写作与翻译引言写作.ppt

1、医学英语写作与翻译,引言的内容与写作,引言的内容与写作,1. 引言的内容与写法（How to Write the Introduction） 2. Follow the guidelines below for writing a good introduction Review the pertinent literature to orient the reader. Present, with all possible clarity, the nature and scope of the present study. State the purpose of the present

2、study. State the method of the investigation. Use the present tense while referring to the problem and the established knowledge relating to it. Use the past tense while discussing the notions and performances in the past. Write “I/We conducted the study to.” (active voice) rather than “The study wa

3、s conducted to”(passive voice),引言的内容与写作,Read the following example introduction and familiarize yourself with the layout: Although physical exercise has become an important part of standard therapy for patients who have had acute myocardial infarction and cardiac surgery, its role after heart transp

4、lantation has not been well defined. 1,2 Patients undergoing heart transplantation, like those undergoing coronary-artery bypass surgery, are affected by preoperative inactivity and postoperative deconditioning and can potentially benefit from exercise rehabilitation. To be continued, present the na

5、ture and scope of the present study (in the present tense) giving background information on the present study (in the present tense),引言的内容与写作, The denervated donor heart has altered physiologic responses to exercise that can impair exercise tolerance. 3,5 The question of whether the transplanted hea

6、r can tolerate the physiologic stress of exercise training after transplantation, coupled with the possibility that exercise might precipitate acute rejection of the transplant, may underlie the historical reluctance to prescribe exercise training after transplantation. However, the denervated heart

7、 has been shown to respond appropriately to exercise. 5-7 Moreover, several nonrandomized studies have suggested that exercise training increases the capacity for physical work after heart transplantation.8-10 To be continued, giving background information on the present study of the rationale with

8、carefully chosen reference (in the present tense),引言的内容与写作, Because a certain amount of improvement in exercise capacity is expected after surgery, it is unclear how much of these reported gains in physical-work capacity reflects the effects of exercise training as compared with the natural course o

9、f postoperative recovery. Therefore, we undertook a randomized, prospective study to assess the effect of exercise training provided in a cardiac-rehabilitation program on measurements of physical-work capacity and activities of daily living among patients who had undergone heart transplantation., s

10、pecifying the nature and scope of the present study (in the present tense) stating the purpose of the present study and the method of the investigation (in the past tense),引言的内容与写作,例一：引言 幽门螺杆菌(Hp)被认为是成人慢性胃炎中最普遍的B型胃炎的主要病因。B型胃炎病变部位一般在胃窦和幽门；而A型胃炎是典型的自身免疫性胃炎，主要发生于胃底。现已发现，Hp阳性的慢性胃窦炎与十二指肠溃疡有密切关系，并能引起胃萎缩，后

11、者系胃癌前兆。 环境因素如社会经济和教育状况，似乎与Hp感染的传播程度相关。拉丁美洲人和黑人的感染率始终高于白人。感染与教育水平呈负相关。 在人口密集的社区中，Hp的感染率和家庭成员间的Hp感染率高于普通人群。这可能是由于同一家庭中成员之间出现复发或再感染。此外，虽然大多数证据支持因拓殖而导致人与人之间的传播主要发生于儿童时期，但目前对于Hp的传播途径尚不清楚。在自然条件下，传播可以通过口一口或粪一口途径，但没有明确证据显示哪种途径是主要途径。而且，两种途径在其它因素作用下可能相互关联。 对Hp感染在家庭内传播的研究，大多针对有症状儿童的父母和兄弟姐妹，而不是普通人群。为了避免这种可能出现的选

12、择性偏差，我们研究了Dionysos人的部分群体，以评估父母感染Hp的儿童感染率是否高于父母未感染家庭的儿童。 Click here for the English version,Example 1 Introduction Helicobacter pylori is considered to be the main aetiological agent of the most common form of chronic gastritis in the adult population-type B gastritis. Type B gastritis is localized i

13、n the antrum and pylorus, whereas type A gastritis, the classic autoimmune gastritis, mainly occurs in the fundus. H pylori positive chronic gastritis of the antrum has been found to be closely related to duodenal ulcer and can lead to gastric atrophy, a precursor of gastric cancer. Environmental fa

14、ctors, such as socioeconomic and educational state, seem to affect the prevalence of H pylori infection. Infection is consistently higher in Hispanic and black people than in white people and is inversely related to educational level. The prevalence of H pylori infection is higher in close communiti

15、es and in members of family groups than in the general population. This may be due to relapses or reinfections between members of the same family. Furthermore, the route of transmission of H pylori remains unknown, although most of the evidence supports person to person transmission with colonizatio

16、n occurring primarily in childhood. Under natural circumstances transmission could be by the oral or faecal-oral routes, but no strong evidence exists to support either route as the primary one, and both may be relevant depending on other factors. Most studies of transmission of H pylori infection w

17、ithin families have been conducted on parents and siblings of children referred for symptoms and not on the general population. To avoid this potential selection bias, we studied part of the population of the Dionysos cohort study to assess whether children of H pylori infected parents had a higher

18、infection rate than those from families with uninfected parents.,引言的内容与写作,例二： 急性心肌梗死(AMl)为老年人的主要死亡原因。关于急性心梗患者最佳治疗策略的选择，已有多个临床试验在进行探讨，对比溶栓疗法和安慰剂实验的汇总分析亦做过总结。汇总分析发现，75岁以下的患者，溶栓疗法效果显著，而75岁或以上的患者，死亡率稍有降低。直接经皮腔内冠状动脉成形术(PTCA)的支持者强调，介入法具有较高的早期开通率、较低的死亡率和再梗死发生率，而且还显著降低脑卒中的发生率。最近做过的一个有关比较溶栓疗法和直接PTCA随机临床实验的汇总

19、分析显示，PTCA可降低短期死亡率和再梗死发生率。对非选择性病例进行的观察性研究显示，接受介入治疗的患者的预后与接受溶栓疗法的患者效果类似。 难以据随机临床实验结果推论老年患者，因为老年患者更容易存在大面积的冠状动脉病变，危险因素更多，而且有其他情况可能对决定是否采用再灌注治疗产生影响。在缺乏随机实验结论性证据的情况下，观察性研究资料亦可用于评估临床治疗结果。观察性研究反映的是社区的一般做法和一般社区标准，而不是高度专业化中心提供的治疗。鉴于这些问题，本文比较了接受溶栓疗法与接受介入疗法的老年AMI患者的临床结果。 Click here for the English version,Exam

20、ple 2 Introduction ACUTE MYOCARDIAL INFARCTRION(AMI) is the leading cause of death in elderly patients. The choice of an optimal management strategy for patients with AMI has been addressed in multiple clinical trials and summarized in a meta-analysis of trials comparing thrombolysis with placebo. T

21、he meta-analysis found a significant benefit of thrombolysis in patients younger than 75 years, but only a trend toward decrease in mortality rates in patients aged 75 years or older. Supporters of primary percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty (PTCA) emphasize the procedures higher early pa

22、tency rate, lower rates of death and recurrent reinfarction, and markedly reduced rate of stroke. A recent meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials that compared thrombolytic therapy with primary PTCA suggests that PTCA decreases short-term mortality and the incidence of recurrent infarction. Obs

23、ervational studies in unselected patients have demonstrated similar outcomes in patients undergoing primary PTCA compared with those receiving thrombolysis. The results of randomized clinical trials may be difficult to extrapolate to elderly patients, who are more likely to have extensive coronary a

24、rtery disease, additional risk factors, and other conditions that may influence decisions about the appropriate reperfusion strategy. In the absence of conclusive evidence from randomized trials, data from observational studies may be used to assess treatment outcomes in clinical practice. Observati

25、onal studies reflect general practice in the community and general community standards rather than care provided in highly specialized centers. In light of these issues, we compared the clinical outcomes of elderly patients with AMI who were treated with either thrombolytic therapy or primary PTCA.,

26、引言部分的动词时态,(1) 介绍研究的背景、现状及尚待解决的问题，报告病案或概括原始文献作者的观点和结论，常用一般现在时或现在完成时，句中谓语动词多用被动语态。例如： 肥厚型心肌病(HCM)是一种复杂的家族性心脏病，其临床、病理形态和遗传表现不尽相同。 Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy (HCM) is a complex familial cardiac disease with heterogeneous7hetErEu5dVi:niEs clinical, morphologic, and genetic expression. 自40年前首次报道以来，人们一直认为

27、HCM与严重活动能力受限和过早死亡有关。据报道每年死亡率可达36。 Since its initial description 40 years ago, HCM has been largely regarded to be associated with substantial disability and premature death, and annual mortality rates as high as 3% to 6% have been reported.,引言部分的动词时态,然而，我们认为这种对HCM过分悲观的观点可能有误，因为有关该病自然病史的资料几乎均来自少数第三级中

28、心。这类中心对病情的介绍在传统上偏重于重症、危症患者。 However, we believe that this rather ominous perception of HCM is likely to be skewed since available natural history data for this disease have been derived almost exclusively from a few tertiary centers in which the patterns of referral have traditionally been biased to

29、ward those patients judged as severely affected or at high risk. 西欧的报告称，在小样本或短期随访非住院人群和在经严格选择人群或已接受预防性抗心律失常治疗人群中进行的研究表明，HCM的自然病程可能没有过去报道的那么可怕。 Reports from Western Europe, in small or non-hospital-based populations with short follow-up, and in cohortskuhR:t(队列，同期组群) composed of only highly selected

30、segments of the HCM spectrum or in which many patients received prophylactic antiarrhythmic treatment, suggest that the natural history of HCM may be more benign than previously reported.,引言部分的动词时态,(2) 说明资料的来源和收集方法、研究的起止时间和主要结果、直接引用原始文献作者姓名及其观点、描述过去研究过程中进行的活动，常用一般过去时或过去完成时(强调本项研究之前就已进行过的工作)。例如： 美国国家

31、息肉研究项目，是一项专门用于确定对刚被诊断为腺瘤样息肉的患者进行随访监测时间间隔的随机化临床试验，它为我们提供了检测腺瘤患者家族中结肠直肠痛患病几率的基本概况。 The National Polyp Study, a randomized clinical trial designed to determine the appropriate intervals for follow-up surveillance of patients with newly diagnosed adenomatous polyps, provided a framework within which to

32、examine the risk of colorectal cancer in the families of patients with adenoma. 从1992年1月到1999年7月，138例患者因感染性心内膜炎并发症而受心瓣膜置换术。 From January 1992 to July 1999，138 patients underwent cardiac valve replacement because of complications of infective endocarditis,引言部分的动词时态, 本研究以Frank等人的工作为依据。 因为他们证实了三环抗抑郁药 (

33、TCA)丙咪嗪和人际心理疗法(1PT)对预防或延迟中年重性抑郁症患者复发有效。 This study builds on the work of Frank et al., who demonstrated the efficacy of the tricyclic antidepressant (TCA) imipramine hydrochloride and of IPT (= interpersonal psychotherapy) in preventing or delaying recurrences of major depression in midlife patients

34、. 通过前瞻及回顾性研究，我们研究了盐酸丙咪嗪对血压的影响。 The effect of imipramine hydrochloride on blood pressure was examined in a prospective and a retrospective study. 一例16年前因患何杰金病接受过放射治疗的22岁男子患有放疗诱发的甲状腺癌。 In a 22-year-old male, who had been irradiated 16 years previously for Hodgkins disease, a radiation-induced thyroid

35、carcinoma developed.,引言部分的动词时态,(3) 说明研究的内容和目的，常用一般过去时。如： 本研究的目的是通过详细的心脏解剖检查，研究急性斑块破裂与用力导致的冠状动脉猝死之间的联系。 The purpose of this study was to examine the association between acute plaque rupture and exertion-related sudden coronary death in a series of carefully studied autopsy hearts. 但在表示研究目的的具体内容时，由“确定

36、、阐明、探讨”等动词引出的宾语从句，或其他形式的句子的谓语动词一般用现在时，表示客观规律。例如： 本研究旨在以前瞻性试验测定两种治疗方法的结果是否有显著差异。 The aim of our study was to perform such a prospective trial to determine whether there is a significant difference in the results of both treatments,引言部分的动词时态,(4) 在说明研究的内容和目的后，提及今后要做的工作及预期的结果和价值时，常用一般将来时。例如： 随着人们对甲状腺球蛋白

37、水平与临床的相关性认识的提高，测定甲状腺球蛋白的必要性也在提高。 As greater clinical correlation is obtained，the usefulness of thyroglobulin determination will increase,引言部分的常用概念表达,(1) 表示不同观点和意见 研究与关于的结论不同：.studies have differed in their conclusion onaboutregarding = Seizure types in newborn infants vary considerably from those ob

38、served in older infants, and the types in premature infants differ from those in term infants. = Our studies have differed in the conclusion regarding whether H pylori is considered to be the main aetiological agent of the most common form of chronic gastritis in the adult population-type B gastriti

39、s. 关于方面有各种不一致的(相互矛盾的)报道：There have been differentconflicting reports regardingon. = There have been conflicting reports on the environmental factors, such as socioeconomic and educational state.,引言部分的常用概念表达,这些报道不一致的可能原因是：The discrepancies may be a result of. = The discrepancies may be a result of th

40、e degree of cerebral ischemic hypoxia or between apparent diffusion coefficients and histologic changes in rats. 通过.的研究得到相反的结果： . studies by . produced converse results = Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled studies by Mark on synthetic human secretinsi5kri:tin (胰泌素) in children with autisti

41、cC:5tistik(孤独病的) disorders produced converse results. 关于. ，同行中一直有相当多的争论：There has been considerable professional debate onabout . = There has been considerable professional debate on/about the prevalence of H pylori infection related to the route of transmission.,引言部分的常用概念表达,(2) 引用文献资料来源 某人(某人等)发现(报

42、道、描述、提到、表明等)：Sb(Sbet a1)foundreporteddescribedmentionedshowed that . = Bierrring (1956) studied 151 patients in Copenhagen following pneumonia and found that only one child (0.7 %) have had bronchiectasis(支气管扩张). 某人发现(报道、提到等)某事：Sthwas foundreportedmentioned by sb = Nearly a century ago, mental deter

43、ioration in older people was mentioned by Alois Alzheimer 据报道(证实、观察等)：It has been reporteddemonstratedobserved that . =It has been observed that the flow of potassium is especially critical in cells responsible for memory formation.,引言部分的常用概念表达,(3)表示尚待解决的问题 关于研究做得很少：Little research has been done on

44、. /Little is known about. =Little is known about the influences of lifestyley on spontaneous abortion(自然流产), although the use of illicit drugs has been implicated as a factor. = Little research has been done on the action of immunosuppressive agents on the activity of other transcription(转录) factors

45、 in endothelial cells(内皮细胞) and their potential to induce adhesion molecule and Hsp expression. 关于了解相对较少：Relatively little knowledge is available related to. = Relatively little knowledge is available related to whether the skin cells of Alzheimers patients have defects that interfere with their abi

46、lity to regulate the flow of potassium in and out of the cells.,引言部分的常用概念表达,很少注意到：Little attention has been paidgiven to. = Little attention has been given to the relative importance of genetic and environmental risk factors for mental disorders, as well as their possible interaction. 尚不清楚(未确定，不知道)是

47、否：It is unclearuncertainunknown whether . = Necrotizing enterocolitis(小肠结肠炎) is the most common gastrointestinal emergency of the neonate, affecting 5-10% of infants, yet the pathogenesis remains unclear. 仍有争论(尚未探讨，仍不清楚): . isremains controversialunexploredunclear = There are extensive data to suppo

48、rt both the clinical benefit and the cost effectiveness of routine thrombo-prophylaxis7prCfi5lAksis(预防) in surgical patients, but the use of this approach in general medical patients remains controversial.,引言部分的常用概念表达,(4)表示本研究的重要性 对具有实际意义： . has practical significanceimplication for . = This technol

49、ogy has significant potential for use in CNS(central nervous system中枢神经系统) developmental studies and molecular medicine, especially future gene therapies for humans. = These benefits and adverse effects have implications for future research studies and clinical practice. .一直是集中研究的课题： . has been the

50、subject of intensive research = How these or other yet identified factors come together to create the classic clinical and pathologic features is the subject of much research. .一直是感兴趣和争论的焦点： . has been the focus of much interest and debate = Ischemia-reperfusion injury following perinatal7peri5neitl(围产期的) asphyxiaAs5fiksiE(窒息, 昏厥), or the prolonged state of low flow perfusion in growth retarded fetuses(胎儿) are two examples that are a focus of considerable research interest.,引言部分的常用概念表达,(5) 表示研究的内容和目的 本研究旨在：The purposeobjectaim of this studyres