二语习得(L10).ppt

1、Lesson Ten Theories of second language acquisition,The role of theory in SLA Approaches to theory building Schools of theories of second language acquisition,The role of theory in SLA Description: the characterization of the nature of the linguistic categories which constitute the learners interlang

2、uage Explanation: how SLA takes place Why SLA takes place,Two approaches to theory building: theory-then-research research-then-theory The study of SLA has involved both approaches,Schools of theories of second language acquisition,Nativist theories of SLA eg. The Universals Hypothesis Environmental

3、ist theories of SLA eg. The acculturation Model Interactionist theories of SLA eg. The discourse theory,Schools of theories of second language acquisition,1. The acculturation Model 2. Accommodation Theory 3. The discourse theory 4. The monitor theory 5. Variable Competence Model 6. The Universals H

4、ypothesis 7. The neurofunctional Theory 8. SR Model,The acculturation theory,Meaning of acculturation Social distance Social factors that create good language learning environment Psychological distance Psychological factors increasing the psychological distance Nativization vs Denativization,The ac

5、culturation theory,Definition of acculturation Acculturation is defined by Brown (1980a:129) as the process of becoming adapted to a new culture.,Two models: John Schumanns model Andersens modelThe Nativization Model,The Premise of the Acculturation Model,John Schumanns model second language acquisi

6、tion is just one aspect of acculturation and the degree to which a learner acculturates to the target language group will control the degree to which he acquires the second language. (Schumann 1978c:34),Factors Determining Acculturation,Acculturation, and hence SLA, is determined by the degree of so

7、cial and psychological distance between the learner and the target language culture.,Social distance,Social distance is created by the relations between the learner and members of the target social group.,Social factors that create good language learning environment,The target language group and L2

8、groups view each other as socially equal. The target language group and L2 groups are desirous that the L2 group will assimilate. Both the target language group and L2 groups expect the L2 group to share social facilities. First language group is small and not very cohesive. The L2 groups culture is

9、 congruent with that of the target language group. Both groups have positive attitudes to each other. The L2 group envisages staying in the target language area for an extended period.,Psychological distance,Psychological distance is the result of various affective factors of the learner.,Psychologi

10、cal factors increasing the psychological distance,1. Language shock, 2.Culture shock 3. Low motivation 4. High ego boundaries Continued pidginizaton is the result of social and psychological distance. When pidginizaton persists the learner fossilizes. The result of social and psychological distance

11、is the continued pidginization and fossilization.,Andersens modelThe Nativization Model,Nativization Denativization Accommodation Growth independent Growth towards an of the external norm assimilation external norm Restricted access adequate access to input to input Pidginization Depidginization cre

12、ation of a unique First/second language first/second language as increasing approximation acquisition towards external target norm,Assimilation同化 and accommodation适应,Assimilation refers to the process by which new items are added to a concept or schema Accommodation refers to the process by which th

13、e existing concept or schema is changed on the basis of new information.,ASSIMILATION:) EXAMPLE: A child who knows what a dog is sees another four-legged animal that she or he has never before encountered, such as a cow, and not recognizing it, uses previous schema to call it a dog. ACCOMMODATION: E

14、XAMPLE: After the child calls the cow a dog, his or her mother tells him or her that this new four-legged creature is a cow. The next time the child sees a cow he or she identifies it as a cow, indicating that the childs previous schema of four legged creatures had been expanded to include cows.,Acc

15、ommodation Theory,Accommodation Theory derives from the research of Giles and associates into the intergroup uses of language in multilingual communities such as Britain. His primary concern is to investigate how intergroup uses of language reflect basic social and psychological attitudes in inter-e

16、thnic communication. As an offshoot of this, has also considered SLA from an intergroup stance and it is the resulting view of SLA which has become known as Accommodation Theory.,Differences from Acculturation Model,Acculturation Model Accommodation Theory Actual social distance perceived social dis

17、tance Social and psychological Distance as absolute phenomena Intergroup relationship static dynamic motivation linguistic output,Motivation,Giles also believes (Ellis 1985), that L2 proficiency largely relies upon motivation, which is to a great extent affected by how individual learners view thems

18、elves in terms of ethnic identity.This is determined by the following variables (Ellis1985:257):,1.Identification of the individual learner with his ethnic ingroup.To what degree a learner identifies himself with his own ingroup. 2.Inter-ethnic comparison.If a learner makes positive or negative comp

19、arisons between his group and the outgroup. 3.Perception of ethno-linguistic vitality.If a learner views his ingroup as low or high in status and bounded with or excluded from institutional power. 4.Perception of ingroup boundaries.If a learner views his ingroup as culturally and linguistically excl

20、uded form the outgroup (hard boundaries) or as culturally and linguistically correlating (soft boundaries). 5.Identification with other ingroup social categories.If a learner can identify with any kind of his ingroup social categories, e.g. occupation, gender, education and accordingly has an adequa

21、te or inadequate status within his ingroup.,Key variables A B high motivation low motivation high level of proficiency low level of proficiency 1.Identification with weak identification strong identification ingroup 2.inter-ethnic makes favourable or makes negative comarison no comparison, i.e. comp

22、arison, i.e. ingroup ingroup not seen as seen as inferior inferior 3.Perception of low perception high perception ethno-linguistic vitality 4.Perception of soft and open hard and closed ingroup boundaries 5. Identification with strong identification weak identification other social - satisfactory in

23、group - inadequate group categories status status,Linguistic output.,The level of proficiency that a learner can achieve in second language acquisition is also dependent on the learners linguistic output.,() people are continually modifying their speech with others so as to reduce or accentuate the

24、linguistic (and hence) social differences between them depending on their perceptions of the interactive situation(Ellis 1985:257).,Two types of L2 speakers use of ethnic speech markers,Two types of L2 speakers use of ethnic speech markers linguistic features which mark the ingroup membership of the

25、 speaker, namely upward convergence (上行聚合点) and downward convergence (下行分散点 ) (Ellis 1985).,Upward convergence appears when ingroup speech markers are not accentuated, therefore a learners motivation concerning outgroup community is favorable.Downward convergence, in contrast, occurs when ethnic spe

26、ech markers are stressed, and learners motivation towards the outgroup is unfavorable.Both phenomena can vary with regard to L2 speakers evaluation of himself and his ingroup as opposed to the outgroup.It can be further stated that a learner chooses what style and form to adopt according to his soci

27、al and psychological distances, as well as due to the degree to which he wishes to mark his speech as that of the ingroup.,Language acquisition is optimal when a learner fits the upward convergence criterion, otherwise a learner fossilizes.,The Discourse Theory,Definition of discourse,Discourse is t

28、he language in use. According to the discourse theory of language acquisition, which was proposed by Hatch in the late 1970s, functions of speech are of primary importance to learners both in the case of mother tongue as well as a foreign language.,What is discourse theory?,It follows from a theory

29、of language use, in which communication is treated as the matrix of linguistic knowledge (as proposed for instance in Hymess description of communicative competence) , that language development should be considered in terms of how the learner discovers the meaning potential of language by participat

30、ing in communication.,In a study of how his own child acquired language , Halliday shows that the development of the formal linguistic devices for realizing basic language function grows out of the interpersonal use to which language is put. Because the structure of language is itself a reflection o

31、f the functions it serves, it can be learnt through learning to communicate.,As Cherry (1979:122)puts it: Through communicating with other people, Children accomplish actions in the world and develop the rules of language structure and use.,It is because the L2 learner is similarly motivated to acco

32、mplish actions (at least in informal SLA) that a parallel can be drawn between first and second language acquisition. In SLA this view of how development takes place has become known as the Discourse Theory.,Main principles of the Discourse Theory proposed by Hatch,SLA follows a natural route in syn

33、tactical development. Native speakers adjust their speech in order to negotiate meaning with non-native speakers. The conversational strategies used to negotiate meaning, and the resulting adjusted input, influence the rate and route of SLA in a number of ways. (a) the learner learns the grammar of

34、the L2 in the same order as the frequency order of the various features in the input; (b) the learner acquires commonly occurring formulas and then later analyses these into their component parts; (c) the learner is helped to construct sentences vertically; vertical structures are the precursors of

35、horizontal structures. 4. Thus, the natural route is the result of learning how to hold conversation.,The Monitor Model,Stephen Krashens Monitor Model is an example of the nativist theories.The model forms a foundation for the Natural Approach, which is a comprehension-based approach to foreign and

36、second language teaching.The model comprises of five hypotheses, whose extensive explanation is provided in the subsequent sections of this work.,Krashens Monitor Model consists of five central hypotheses. The acquisition-learning hypothesis The monitor hypothesis The natural order hypothesis The in

37、put hypothesis The affective filter hypothesis,The acquisition-learning hypothesis,Acquisition which refers to the subconscious process in which they develop their language proficiency through natural communications in the target language and it id very similar to the process children use acquiring

38、their first language. Learning refers to the conscious process in which they acquire the explicit knowledge of the rules of the target language.,The monitor hypothesis,The only function of learning is to monitor or edit what has been or is going to be produced according to the norms of the target la

39、nguage,Three conditions for the use of monitor,The first condition is that the speaker must have sufficient time to monitor his productions. The second condition is that the language performer must have his focus on form. The third condition is that the language performer must have an explicit knowl

40、edge of the rules of the target language , otherwise, the language performer wont be able to monitor his production.,The natural order hypothesis,This hypothesis claims that there is a predictable, natural order for the acquisition of grammatical structures in a second language, irrespective of age

41、differences and language backgrounds of acquirers. foreign language learners acquire the rules of the target language in the same order. Grammatical sequencing is not desirable nor necessary when our goal is language acquisition. But when our goal is conscious learning, sequencing is necessary and u

42、navoidable.,The input hypothesis,It “states simply that we acquire (not learn) language by understanding input that is a little beyond our current level of (acquired) competence” (Krashen and Terrell 1983:32).For instance, if a learners stage is i, then acquisition occurs when he/she is exposed to c

43、omprehensible input that constitutes i + 1 level, provided that he/she understands (read: an acquirer is focused on the meaning rather than on form) language containing i + 1.It can be achieved through reading and hearing structures, which slightly excel learners current ability, as well as through

44、context and extra-linguistic information.,The input itself can be divided into finely- and roughly-tuned. Roughly tuned input is said to be more important and advantageous from finely tuned input.,The affective filter hypothesis,Language acquirers with a low affective filter will get more input cont

45、aining i+1 and they are able to make a better use of the input in their acquisition process. Learners with a high affective filter which will block the input will get less input and they wont be able to make the full use of the input in their language acquisition process.,Variable Competence Model多变

46、语言能力模式,The Variable Competence Model, as proposed by Ellis in 1984, is based on and adds to the work of Tarone, Widdowson, and Bialystok.Its chief constituents are, what Ellis (1985) calls, a process and product of language use.According to this theory, the way a given language is used mirrors the m

47、ethod in which it is learnt.,The array of discourse types, from planned to unplanned, constitutes what Ellis has termed the product of language use.The unplanned discourse can be explained as spontaneous communication without prior thought or preparation.In contrast, the planned discourse requires f

48、irst thought, then expression.,The discrepancy between knowledge about the language, i.e. rules of the language, and the actual use of this knowledge, i.e. procedures,allows for understanding the notion of the process of language use, as termed by Ellis (1985).In Widdowsons view (Ellis 1985), knowle

49、dge of the rules can be referred to as competence, and the use of this knowledge in actual speech, as capacity.Following this assumption, it can be further stated that in order to produce sentences in discourse situation, the language user needs to be capable of correlating his knowledge of the rule

50、s with situational and linguistic context in which he finds himself .Thus, the product of language use is the effect of one or both of the following notions (Ellis 1985:267):,1. variable competence, i.e. the user possesses a heterogeneous rule system 2. variable application of procedures for actuali

51、zing knowledge in discourse According to the Variable Competence Model, both of the above occur and interrelate.,Bialystok distinguishes between automatic/non-automatic and analytic/unanalytic variability of the learners rule system (Ellis 1985).The automatic/non-automatic distinction deals with the

52、 access that the learner has to his L2 knowledge.Knowledge that can be restored quickly and without effort is automatic.The one that requires time and energy is non-automatic.The analytic/unanalytic distinction, on the other hand, constitutes the degree to whichthe learner possesses a “prepositional

53、 mental representation which makes clear the structure of the knowledge and its relationship to other aspects of knowledge” (Bialystok 1982:183, cited in Ellis 1985:267).,Ellis distinguishes between two types of procedures for actualizing knowledge, namely primary and secondary processes (Ellis 1985

54、), each of them having an external (discourse) and an internal (cognitive processes) representation.Primary processes, since they refer to unanalyzed and automatic knowledge, are responsible for engaging in unplanned discourse, e.g. semantic simplification.Secondary processes, as they relate to anal

55、yzed knowledge, are responsible for planned discourse, e.g. monitoring.,Variable Competence Model,1.There is a single knowledge store containing variable interlanguage rules according to how automatic and how analysed the rules are. 2. The learner possesses a capacity for language use which consists

56、 of primary and secondary discourse and cognitive processes. 3. L2 performance is variable as a result of whether primary processes employing unanalysed L2 rules are utilized in unplanned discourse , or secondary processes employing anlysed L2 rules are utilized in planned discourse . 4. Development

57、 occurs as a result of (a) acquisition of new L2 rules through participation in various types of discourse (i.e. new rules originate in the application of procedural knowledge); (b) activation of L2 rules which initially exist in either a non-automatic unanalysed form or in an analysed form so they

58、can be used in unplanned discourse.,Acquisition Acquisition,automatic,Unplanneddiscourse,Planneddiscours,Knowledge analytic,use,use,Primary processes,Secondaryprocesses,The Universals Hypothesis,The Universal Hypothesis isbased on Noam Chomskys theory of language acquisition. Although Chomskys Universal Grammar theory holds for child first language acquisition, it is believed that it may well be true for second language acquisition.,Chomsky claims that language acquisition is greatly dependent upon a linguistic facul