语言学讲义 考研 4 Syntax.ppt

1、讲义四Syntax,GraceTan,SYNTAX is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language , or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures. 句法研究的是语言中不同成分组合句子的支配规则，或者句子结构中各要素间的相互关系。,The Traditional Approach The Structura

2、l Approach The Generative Approach The Functional Approach,I.Traditional approachThe types of sentence,A. According to the structure: Sentence can be simple and non-simple (complex and compound). The simple sentence The girl is watching TV. Mary and John are sitting on the sofa. The compound sentenc

3、e 并列句 A compound sentence consists of two or more simple sentences, usually connected by a comma plus a joining word (and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet). A compound sentence is used when you want to give equal weight to closely related ideas. We are watering the trees, for we dont have any rain for a

4、month.,The complex sentence复合句 A complex sentence is made up of a simple sentence and a statement that begins with a dependent word. A complex sentence is used when you want to emphasize one idea over another in a sentence. What I want to emphasize is this. We should never pretend to know what we do

5、nt know. The compound-complex sentence Ellipsis is a common feature in English, but in many sentences of this type it is not possible to state exactly what is left out.,B. According to communicative function: Sentence can be declarative, interrogative, imperative and exclamatory. functional approach

6、:P101 Indicative(interrogative +declarative) Imperative(jussive命令句+optative祈愿句),Yes/no wh_,2.3. The extension of sentence Sentence can be extended either by conjoining or embedding. Conjoining is a way by which clauses are joined by means of coordinating conjunctions并列连词 (and, but, or), or connectiv

7、es 连接词and parataxis.并列(一系列相关的从句或词组之间没有连词)(如:I came, I saw, I conquered.) Embedding嵌入法 is a process of construction whereby one clause is a constituent of another or is subordinated to another.,2.4. The structure of sentence The linear and hierarchical structures of sentences 湖大2004 State briefly on

8、one of the two topics give below (minimally 100 words) Grammar is antonomous. Linguistic structure is hierarchical.,Language types,SVO: English, French, Swahili, Hausa, Thai VSO: Tagalog, Irish, (Classical) Arabic, (Biblical) Hebrew SOV: Turkish, Japanese, Persian, Georgian OVS: Apalai (Brazil), Bar

9、asano (Colombia), Panare (Venezuela) OSV: Apurina and Xavante (Brazil) VOS: Cakchiquel (Guatemala), Huave (Mexico),Sentence patterns/types in English,i) SVC Mary is a nurse/poor. ii) SVA Mary weighs 120 pounds. iii) SV Mary came. iv) SVO Mary cheated me. v) SVOC Mary called me Jim. vi) SVOA Mary put

10、 her child down. vii) SVOO Mary lend him some money. 真题：Name three/five of SVO lgs:,广外2004 Observe the given Korean data and state as many syntatic difference between English and Korean as you can.(note :SM=subject marker OM=object marker) (1) k sony n-iee w yu-l l masi-ass-ta the boy-SM milk-OM dri

11、nk-PAST-ASSERTION “The boy drank milk.” (2) k -n n mu s- l m k-ass-n nya He-SM what-OM eat-PAST-QUESTION “What did he eat?”,Key Korean is SOV in its syntax while English is SVO. Korean is agglutinative粘着 in its word formation.Different linguistic elements, each of which exists separately and has a f

12、ixed meaning, are joined to form one word. In Korean, a question is formed by using mu s- l (What-OM) in the middle of a S and a question marker at the end of the S without the inversion or aux-insertion as in English.,Categories范畴 It refers to the defining properties of grammatical units 甄别性特点 The

13、categories of the noun, include number, gender, case and countability; 名词的范畴包括数、性、格和可数性； The categories of the verb, for example, person, tense, aspect, mood, voice, etc. 动词范畴则含有人称、时、体、式、态等。,1).Word-level categories,Major lexical categories（主要词类）: N, V, Adj, Prep. Minor Lexical categories（次要词类）: Det

14、, Deg, Qual, Auxi, Conj. Det Determiner (限定词) Deg Degree word（程度词） QualQualifier(修饰词) AuxAuxiliary (助动词) Con Conjunction (连接词),2).Phrase-level categories,Phrase categories(短语范畴)-the syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase categories, such as NP, VP, AP, PP. Th

15、e structure: specifier + head + complement Head(词头/中心词)-the word around which a phrase is formed Specifier(指示语/标志语)-the words on the left side of the heads Complement（补足语）-the words on the right side of the heads Eg. The pretty girl dreaming about going to Paris.,Grammatical Categories,The term “gra

16、mmatical category” is used by some linguists to refer to word classes. In TG grammatical categories are syntactic units indicated by “category symbols” such as S, NP, VP, Det , A, etc. 有些语言学家用“语法范畴”这个术语来表示词类。在转换生成语法中，语法范畴是用S, NP, VP, Det , A等“范畴符号”表示的句法单位。,Which of the following items is Not one of

17、the grammatical categories of English pronouns? Agender Bnumber Ccase Dvoice Answer: D,_is Not a grammatical category of English verbs? Atense Baspect Cnumber Dgender Answer: D,Number,the noun-a book, some books the pronoun- I, we, etc. English verbs-do 连词连接多少个成分没有限制 2) a category at any level can b

18、e coordinated; 任何层次都可以并列 e.g. son and father, in the room and in the garden,3) the categories must be of the same type; 4) the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.并列词组的类别与构成该词组的类别一致 Example: girls playing in the garden and boys rea

19、ding in the room 名词短语 in the room and in the garden介词短语 判断并列词组的类别根据构成并列词组的成分的类别来判断,Subordination Rule,Subordinating construction is a construction in which the units have different syntactic status, one being dependent on the other, there is only one head, the other is modifier. eg. two dogs, bald g

20、entlemen, swimming in the lake 3 clauses :complement clauses补语分句 adjunct/adverbial clause附加语言分句 relative clause,Recursiveness/ Recursion,A childrens rhyme This is the farmer sowing the corn, that kept the cock that crowed in the morn, that waked the priest all shaven and shorn, that married the man

21、all tattered and torn, that kissed the maiden all forlorn, that milked the cow with the crumpled horn, that tossed the dog, that worried the cat, that killed the rat, that ate the malt, that lay in the house that Jack built.,Transformational Generative Grammar,Noam Chomsky any language has two level

22、s of structures -deep and surface structure the surface structure is derived from the deep structure.,D-Structure B. introduction to transformational rules; C. grammatical description regardless of meaning.,2. The period of Standard Theory: 1965-1970: the aim is to deal with how semantics should be

23、studied in linguistics. 3. The period of Extended Standard Theory: 1970-1980: focus on language universals and universal grammar: 4. The period of government （管辖）and binding（约束）: 1981-1992, 5. The period of minimalist program: 1992-today, the revision of the previous theory.,According to standard th

24、eory,_ contain all the information necessary for the semantic interpretation of sentences. A.deep structure B.surface structure C.transformation rules D.PS rules A,Generative aspect,For Chomsky, what is internalized in the mind of a native speaker is not a complete list of words and phrases but a ru

25、le system of grammatical knowledge. Phrase structural rules短语结构规则 / rewrite rules重写规则,Transformational aspect,16 TRANSFORMATIONAL RULES NP movement The man beat the child. The child was beaten by the man. Wh-movement He sold a book to Mary. What did he sell to Mary? AUX- movement: be,have,do,will, c

26、an,should John will go to England. Will John go to England? He want to go to England. He wants to go to England S-insertion He doesnt want to go to England. NOT insertion,When the affirmative sentence “Jack sold his linguistics textbooks to Jill after the final examination” is transformed into “When

27、 did Jack sell his linguistics textbooks to Jill?” three transformational rules are applied. They are Do-insertion, Subject-aux Inversion and wh-movement. (武汉大学2002年考研试题),南开 What syntactic rule is involved in the transformation of the sentence “ The man was cheated”? Explain by using tree diagrams.

28、Key: The D-structure is “e was cheated the man”,with e being the missing subject. The S-structure is “The man was cheated t “, in which t is the trace. In the S-structure , the NP the man moves to the specifier of AGRP position to get the S-structure. The syntactic rule involved is NP Movement.,南开 O

29、ne kind of substitution is NP Movement.Can you show by tree diagram how the movement rule is realized in the sentence “John seems to be happy”? 考点分析：名词移位出现在由seem一类动词构成的句子中， 主语位置上的名词经过移位，提升到主语位置上，因此，这类结构又称为提升raising 结构.NP Movement is in Raising structures .,IP DP P John I VP V IP seems t be happy,A s

30、peakers actual utterance in Chomskys terminology is called_ Adeep structure Blinguistic universals Cuniversal grammar Dsurface structure Answer: D,The sentence that has a NP and a VP is mostly shown in a _ formula “S NP+VP. Ahierarchical Blinear Ctree diagram Dvertical Answer: C,Which of the followi

31、ng is Not a characteristic of Chomskys TG Grammar? AInnateness BDeductive methodology CEmphasis on interpretation DEmphasis on stimulus-response reinforcement. Answer: D,Which is the full form of LAD? Alanguage associative district Blanguage acquisition district Clanguage associative device Dlanguag

32、e acquisition device Answer: D,Chomsky argues that LAD probably consists of _ elements. A2 B3 C4 D5 Answer: B Reason: 句法, 语音, 逻辑式 According to Chomsky, grammar is a mechanism that should be able to generate all and _ the grammatical sentences of a lg. Only,In Chomskys TG Grammar, which theory focuse

33、s discussion on government and binding? Athe Classical Theory Bthe Standard Theory Cthe Extended Standard Theory Dthe Revised Extended Standard Theory Answer: D,返回,浙大2002 What is the nature of transformtional-generative grammar? What are its main aspects?( about 200 words) 北师大2003Explain and comment

34、 on the following pair of sentences. A.John is easy to please. B.John is eager to please.,IV.The Functional Approach,Systematic-functional grammar Halliday. As the name suggests, it has two characteristics: systemic and functional.,The systemic part: language elements can form into system. The use o

35、f language involves a network of systems of choices. The items in a system are in choice relation with each other.,The functional part: Halliday believes that language is a social phenomenon, and emphasizes the study of language in relation to the functions it performs. The contribution of Halliday

36、is that he relates functions of languages to its structures.,Theme主位 and Rheme述位,Theme is known or at least obvious in the given situation and from which the speaker proceeds. Rheme is what the speaker states about, or in regard to, the starting point of the utterance. In English , theme and rheme a

37、re often expressed by _ and _. A.subject, object B.subject, predicate C.predicate, object D.object, predicate,The man in the wilderness (T)/said to me. (R) Slowly and quietly (T)/ he pushed the door open. (R) Tom, Tom, the pipers son (T)/stole a pig and away did run. (R) If winter comes, (T)/can spr

38、ing be far behind? (R),The notion of Functional Sentence Perspective is used to describe_ Ahow information is distributed in sentences. Bhow sentences are formed Cthe function of sentences Dthe relation between language and its users. Answer: A,Communicative Dynamism 交际动力,J. Firbas (1964), - the ext

39、ent to which the sentence element contributes to the development of the communication. In his opinion, theme - the lowest degree of CD within the sentence,Hallidays Systemic-Functional Grammar takes_ as the object of study. Aactual uses of language Bideal speakers linguistic competence Cchildrens la

40、nguage Dadults language Answer: A,Ideational function,Language serves for the expression of content, that is, of the speakers experience of the real word. The ideational function constructs a model of experience and logical relations. 反映客观和主观世界中所发生的事、所牵涉的人和物以及与之有关的时间、地点等因素。,物质过程：the lion sprang. 心理过

41、程：(see, look, like, please, know, believe, convince) 关系过程：反映两个不同事物之间处于何种关系的过程。Sarah is wise. Tom is the leader. The fair is on Friday. Tomorrow is 10th. Peter has a piano. The piano is Peters. 行为过程：呼吸、咳嗽、叹息、哭笑等生理活动过程。 言语过程： 存在过程： there is a picture on the wall.,Which function of language is also cal

42、led ideational function in the framework of functional grammar? Ainformative function Binterpersonal function Cemotive function Drecreational function Answer: A,Interpersonal function,Languages serve to establish and maintain social relations. The interpersonal function constructs social relation. 人

43、际功能包括言语功能、语气Mood和情态Modality三部分。言语交际中的交际物包括（1）物品和服务，（2）信息。,Modality: expressing degrees of definiteness Speakers and writers take up different positions about a range of phenomena. They may express a position about how probable or usual something is when giving or asking information. For example:,The

44、y are three possible reasons why deserts remain dry. (Probability) How often does Pennys brother smoke? Or they may express different degrees of obligation or inclination when asking somebody to do something or making an offer. For example: You must not trespass on school property.(obligation) Would

45、 you like a cup of tea? (Inclination),Modality expresses strong, medium or weak positions and includes all of the choices between a definite yes and a definite no.,Read text 5.4 and 5.5. answer the questions which follow them. 1.What is the main type of modality expressed in each text? (Eg. Probabil

46、ity, usuality, obligation, inclination) 2.Place a cross on the cline below to indicate how strong or weak you think the position of the writer is. Weak position Medium position strong position,Text 5.4 School violence There are a number of possible reasons for school violence. perhaps children who h

47、ave problems at school or at home feel frustrated because they cannot solve their problems. They might not be able to talk to their teachers or parents and may sometimes feel that they have no friends. This frustration could possibly turn to anger and they may take it out on other people. Children w

48、ho watch a lot of violent TV shows may think that violence is the way to solve problems. Adults may need to help these children to express their feelings in a peaceful way.,Text 5.6 Dear minister, I believe that Australia must accept more refugees into the country. We have learned that recently ther

49、e are many people who have had to leave their country because of war or their beliefs. They could not wait to get visas or stay in camps for many years so they risked their lives to come to Australia. They would not do this if they did not have to. These people need homes. We must help them to settl

50、e in to the country, not send them away. Please change your polices about refugees before it is too late. Yours faithfully Ming,Answer,Text 5.5 and text 5.6 express different degrees of probability and obligation about the information they include. As with types of clauses, the degree of modality chosen by speakers or writers is influenced by how they view their relative status, power, commitment or expertise. For example, the writer of 5.6 has used a high degree of modality (must) in order to persuade the minister to act. this shows that he feels a high level of commitment to the i