Thesis on Larry Selinker----a Giant in Second Language Acquisition

1、Thesis on Larry Selinker-a Giant in Second Language AcquisitionI. A Brief Introduction to Larry SelinkerLarry Selinker is a prestigious American linguist whose major contribution is in the field of Second Language Acquisition (SLA). He has proposed and developed a few important concepts in SLA, such

2、 as interlanguage, fossilization, language transfer and learning and communication strategies, which have been studied by many other scholars dedicated to SLA research.Larry Selinker was educated in Brandeis University in Waltham, Massachusetts from 1955 to 1959, during which period he stayed in Heb

3、rew University in Jerusalem, Israel for one year, studying Hebrew Language and Literature. After getting his Bachelors degree, Selinker continued his study in The American University in Washington, D.C. form 1959 to 1960 and graduated with a Masters degree in linguistics. Later he got his PhD in App

4、lied Linguistics in Georgetown University in 1966. Selinker is a very productive linguist. He published a large quantity of works: Second Language Acquisition: an introductory course in 2008, Fossilization in SLA in 2005, Fossilization: moving the concept into empirical longitudinal study in 2002, E

5、xplanations and scientific method in second language research in 2001, Error resistance: towards an empirical pedagogy in 1999, to name only a few. As a successful linguist, he won many rewards and scholarships, the Fulbright professorship grants for instance. The major success of Larry Selinker lie

6、s in SLA. Early in his 1972 pager “Interlanguage” he proposed the four concepts: interlanguage, fossilization, language transfer and learning and communication strategies, each of which plays an important role in the field of SLA.Interlanguage, according to Selinker, is the separateness of a second

7、language learners system, a system that has a structurally intermediate status between the native and target languages. To be more precise, it is an emerging linguistic system that has been developed by a learner of a second language (or L2) who has not become fully proficient yet but is approximati

8、ng the target language: preserving some features of their first language (or L1), or overgeneralizing target language rules in speaking or writing the target language and creating innovations. Interlanguage is based on the theory that there is a “psychological structure latent in the brain” which is

9、 activated when one attempts to learn a second language. This is closely related to American linguist Noam Chomskys Mentalist View. There are three major characteristics of interlanguage: systematicness, variability and fossilization. Firstly, interlanguage as an independent system is composed of a

10、series of rules, which are different from those in the target language grammatical system. Although interlanguage varies tremendously in its expression forms, it develops in a relatively consistent and systematic way at every stage. It is based on this rule system that second language learners use t

11、he target language to communicate. Secondly, interlanguage is a dynamic system. There exist many ill-formed expressions and mistakes, however, with the learners efforts, the interlanguage will approximate the target language gradually and infinitely.Thirdly, fossilization is a process occurring from

12、 time to time in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language. This is the reason why most second language learners fail to achieve native-like proficiency. Fossilization is the most important characteristics of interlanguage. Selinker a

13、lso proposed five cognitive processes of interlanguage formation: language transfer, overgeneralization of target language rules, transfer of training, strategies of L2 learning and strategies of L2 communication. Interlanguage is one of the earliest theory models to use cognitive views to explain S

14、LA phenomena. It regards SLA as a psychological process and provides a theory frame to explain it. This theory forms a strong theoretical basis for later experimental studies of SLA. Besides, interlanguage is a representation of language knowledge from the aspect of cognitive psychology. This concep

15、t facilitates further studies of cognitive theory on the role of this representation in Second Language Acquisition.Interlanguage is an important concept in Error Analysis, a type of linguistic analysis that focuses on the errors learners make. In error analysis, we make a comparison between the err

16、ors a learner makes in producing the target language (namely in the interlanguage) and the target language form itself. So interlanguage is very important in providing us with errors that learners make. Fossilization, as the most important characteristics of interlanguage, has also been studied by m

17、any scholars over the years. The five cognitive processes of interlanguage formation mentioned above are considered by Selinker the major causes of fossilization, with language transfer being the decisive factor. There are also biological causes of fossilization. According to Lenneberg, theres a “cr

18、itical period”, or what is later called a “sensitive period”, in the acquisition of first language. Language acquisition will become impossible or incomplete after this period (usually puberty). Lamendella used “sensitive period” to explain the acquisition of second language. He also proposed anothe

19、r concept of infrasystem. He holds that while L1 acquisition calls for an infrasystem, L2 acquisition also requires its corresponding infrasystem. If a learner has not developed the infrasystem for acquiring a second language or if this infrasystem is underdeveloped, then he or she has to turn to th

20、e already-developed infrasystem for mother tongue to acquire the second language. However, the infrasystem for mother tongue is not appropriate for acquiring the second language, after the close of the critical period for primary language acquisition, the L2 learner stands a greater chance of fossil

21、izing far from target-language norms. Besides, there are also social and cultural causes of fossilization, for example, the learners lack of desire to acculturate. Language transfer (also known as L1 interference) refers to speakers or writers applying knowledge from their native language to a secon

22、d language. Larry Selinker considered second language acquisition as a process of “hypothesizing and hypothesis testing”, and also a process by which learners use their first language or other known languages to create their second language (namely the language transfer process). There are mainly tw

23、o kinds of transfer: positive transfer and negative transfer. Positive transfer occurs when some characteristics of native language are similar to or the same with target language; negative transfer occurs when the dissimilarities between native language and target language are mistakenly taken to b

24、e similarities. It is believed by many linguists that in the process of second language acquisition, linguistic forms and rules that are similar to those of native language are easier to learn that those that are different. Learning strategies and communication strategies are both postulated as basi

25、c processes leading to the formation of interlanguge. Learning strategies are involved in all types of learning and teaching like science, mathematics, history, languages and other subjects, both in formal (classroom) and informal learning environments. Language learning strategies are the often-con

26、scious steps or behaviors used by language learners to enhance the acquisition, storage, retention, recall, and use of new information. Different learners may employ different learning strategies. For instance, some learners who are very shy and introvert learn a second language through grammar dril

27、ls and sentence analysis. They do the rehearsal as much as they can in isolation. On the other hand, sociable and extrovert learners avoid grammar drills but seek out social conversation in English. They are satisfied that they can get the general meaning without knowing every word. There are some f

28、actors that influence the learners choice of learning strategies, such as motivation, gender, cultural background, attitudes and beliefs, type of task, age and L2 stage, learning style, tolerance of ambiguity, etc. There are three main types of strategies used by L2 learners: metacognitive strategie

29、s, cognitive strategies and social strategies. Metacognitive strategies are those involve planning and thinking about learning, such as planning ones learning and monitoring ones own speech or writing.; cognitive strategies are those operate directly on incoming information, manipulating it in ways

30、that enhance learning; social strategies mean learning by interacting with others, such as working with fellow students or asking the teachers help. A communication strategy is a deliberate attempt to express meaning when faced with difficulty in the second language. Using communication strategies i

31、s characteristic of interlanguage communication. Analysis of these strategies provides us with rich insights into the complex process of language acquisition and gives us ideas about how to help learners develop their interlanguage. Examples of communication strategies include: the use of circumlocu

32、tions, approximation, literal translation, language switch, and avoidance. In dealing with the notion of communication strategies, most researchers have included three components in a definition of communication strategies: problematicity, consciousness and intentionality. Problematicity means that

33、the learner, in using a communication strategy, must have first recognized that there is a problem of communication that must be overcome. It is not part of the routine operations of language use. Consciousness means that learners must be aware that they have encountered a problem and be aware of th

34、e fact that they are, in fact, doing something to overcome that problem. Intentionality implies that learners have control over various options and make choices about which option will have a particular effect.II. Comments on Larry Selinker and His TheoriesLarry Selinker is a very important figure i

35、n the field of second language acquisition. His theories not only stimulate the development of second language studies, but also make great contribution to other fields such as linguistics. His ideas have been studies by many scholars both home and abroad. He enjoys an international reputation and i

36、s admired by many people. The interlanguage proposed by Selinker is a key concept in second language acquisition. So the study of interlanguage assumes great importance. Through the study of interlanguage, researchers could discover the errors that L2 learners make and drive the study of error analy

37、sis. In this sense, interlanguage study plays quite an important role in language teaching class. For example, after analyzing the errors students make in producing interlanguage, teachers can make a judgment about which stage his students target language levels and make a decision about what to do

38、next. Fossilization as an inevitable phenomenon in second language acquisition should be treated correctly. It is not a barrier to the learners approximation of target language, nor is it a reflexion of learners failure in learning target language. The study of fossilization also contributes to seco

39、nd language teaching. For example, teachers can vary their teaching strategies according to the different stages of fossilization the students are at. Besides, as lack of correct input is a cause of fossilization, teachers should provide abundant and correct target language models for students to co

40、py. Language transfer is a common phenomenon in the process of second language acquisition, though different scholars hold different opinions about its significance. Positive transfer may ease learners acquisition of target language while negative transfer will interfere. So what L2 learners have to

41、 do is to make good use of positive transfer and try to reduce the adverse effects of negative transfer. We should not avoid negative transfer but rather find the causes of it and overcome its negative effects.Language learning strategies used by L2 learners help us to know the differences in learne

42、rs choice of learning strategies and its reasons. The study of it should be tightly connected with second language teaching. As we can see that there are good learners and poor learners in SLA. One can copy good learners learning strategies to increase target language learning efficiency, however, not all good learners learning strategies can be u