心理学讲义2020chp 14_W

1、Chapter 14 Social Psychology1. Group Dynamics Norms: shared expectations about how people should think, feel, and behave, and they are the glue that binds social systems togetherThe Stanford Prison Experiment created a new “social reality”, Zimbardo Social Facilitation: the presence of others improv

2、es task performance Social Inhibition: the presence of others hurts task performance if the task is difficult Social Loafing: when individuals do not put in as much effort when acting as part of a group as they do when acting alone Group Polarization: like-minded people share ideas resulting in a mo

3、re extreme position for every individual.n Risk shift effectn Cautious shift effect Deindividuation: loss of self-awareness and self-restraint in situations that promote high arousal and anonymity in groups Groupthink: individual self-censor beliefs to preserve harmony in the group, and poor judgmen

4、ts and bad decisions made by members of groups. (Irving Janis)Five conditions likely to promote groupthink1) Directive leadership, a dominant leader2) High group cohesiveness, with absence of dissenting views3) Lack of norms requiring methodical procedures for evidence collection/evaluation4) Homoge

5、neity of members social background and ideology5) High stress from external threats with low hope of a better solution than that of the group leader2. Attribution Theorythe way to understand how people explain others behavior. Types of attributionn Dispositional/Person attribution: the cause is due

6、to the persons internal qualitiesn Situation attribution: a situational factor is the cause Attributional Biasesn Self-Serving Biasn Fundamental Attribution Errorn Actorobserver asymmetryn Just-world Hypothesis Self-Serving Bias- to take personal credit for our own achievements and balme our failure

7、s on situational factors.- “I got the prize because of my ability”; “I lost the competition because it was rigged.” Fundamental Attribution Error- people overestimate the importance of dispositional factors高估内因- people underestimate the role of situational factors低估外因- more common in individualistic

8、 cultures Actorobserver asymmetry / actorobserver bias: when people judge their ownbehavior (they are the actor), they are more likely to attribute their actions to the particular situation than to their personality. Yet when an observer is explaining the behavior of another person (the actor), they

9、 are more likely to attribute this behavior to the actors overall disposition rather than to situational factors. Just-world Hypothesis: the assumption that a persons actions are inherently inclined to bring morallyfair and fitting consequences to that person, to the end of all noble actions being e

10、ventually rewarded and all evil actions eventually punished. Self-fulfilling prophecy: the expectations we have about others can influence their behavior, and even their self-evaluations.Pygmalion Effect / Rosenthal Effect Rosenthal effect1906-19753. Interpersonal Attraction Fundamental Principle- P

11、ositive evaluation- Shared opinions- Good appearance- Similarity: age and race, across many factors- Self-Disclosure：Sharing a piece of personal information with another person.- Proximity- whom we come into frequent contact- mere exposure effect: the more you are exposed to something, the more you

12、will like it4. Influence of othersConformitySolomon Experimentparticipants conformed 37 percent of the time, compared with a mere 1 percent error rate in a control condition where people judged the lines by themselves.Conformity: the tendency to agree with the views or actions of others Group size:

13、Conformity increased as group size increased from 1 to about 4 or 5 confederates, but further increases in group size did not increase conformity. Presence of a dissenter: according to plan, one confederate disagreed with the others (e.g., the majority said “line 3”; the dissenter said “line 2” or e

14、ven “line 1”). This greatly reduced participants conformity. gender, social status, cultureCompliance: propensity to accede to requests Justification ReciprocityFoot-in-the-door Phenomenon Door-in-the-face PhenomenonObedience- Focus on the willingness of participants to do what another asks- Subject

15、, succumb Milgram experiment5. Attitude Formation and Change Attitude: affective(emotional) + cognitive (perceptual) reactions to different stimuli. Persuasion- two route1 ) central route: involves deeply processing the content of the message2) peripheral route: involves other aspects of the message

16、 Cognitive Dissonance Theory- people are motivated to have consistent attitudes and behaviors (cognitive consistency)- when they dont, they experience dissonance- unpleasant mental tension, so then change attitudes6. Altruism and helping behavior Prosocial Behavior People helping one another Selfles

17、s sacrificeBystander effect: the conditions under which people are more or less likely to help someone in trouble Diffusion of Responsibility: the larger the group of people who witness a problem, the less responsible any one individual feels to help Zimbardo- Carin New Yorkvsin Palo AltoOrganizatio

18、nal psychology Human factors- person machine Organization Management- Equity theory: evaluate efforts vs. rewards- Hawthorne effect: any monitor more productively and efficiently8. Aggression and Antisocial Behavior Prejudice: un undeserved attitude toward a group of people1) Ethnocentrism: the beli

19、ef that your culture is superior to others2) Discrimination: acting on your prejudicesEthnocentrismDiscrimination Stereotypes: ideas about what members of different groups are like- May influence the way we interact with members of these groups- Stereotype treat: participate might not do as well as

20、they can on a test if they are informed that people of their ethnicity, age, or gender usually do not perform well on the testsOrigin and Solution of Stereotypes and Prejudicen Learning: earned through modeling：many prejudiced people have prejudiced parentsn Cognitive process of categorization- peop

21、le cant avoid magnifying differences between groupsn Out-group Homogeneity: The tendency to see members of the out-group as more diverse- In-group : your own group- Out-group :all other groupsn Contact hypothesis: be axposed to each otherAggression Types Instrumental aggression: the aggressive act i

22、s intended to secure a particular end Hostile aggression: has no clear purpose Theoretical Causes Biological factors- hormonal fluctuation:- androgen- testosterone Learned component-Exposure to aggressive models Environmental factors- the feeling of frustration makes aggression more likely- Dehumani

23、zation: view the victims of violence as somehow less than human- Stanford prisoner experimentTo reduce- punishment1. Mr Moffatt overheaded another teacher desbribe one of his students as lazy and unmotived. Though Mr. Moffatt had not previously noted this tendency, he began to see exactly what the o

24、ther teacher had noted. What might account for this phenomenon?(A) Norms(B) deindividuation(C) social loafing(D) self-fulfilling prophecy(E) representativeness heuristic2. According to the theory of cognitive dissonance, attitudes are changed because:(A) We are rewarded by society when our beliefs c

25、oincide with the majority.(B) Logical arguments compel us to alter our attitudes.(C) Emotionally persuasive arguments motivate us to change our thought process.(D) A state of tension motivates us to change our cognitive inconsistencies by making our beliefs more consistent.(E) When our beliefs and b

26、ehaviors are too similar it causes an unpleasant psychological state of tension.3. A person who agrees to a small request initially is more likely to comply with a larger demand later. This describes which phenomenon?(A) Door-in-face effect(B) Foot-in-door effect(C) Low-ball technique(D) High-ball t

27、echnique(E) Door-in-foot technique4. Which of the following scenarios is an example of deindividuation?(A) Cindy finds that working in her group brings high levels of performance compared to students who work alone.(B) Mindy forms a study group because she wants academic help, social support, and motivation.(C) Amy has a poor running performance in competition; she performs even worse in front of a larger crow