新gre issue写作参考政治法律社会reference113-143

1、Chapter 10写作参考：政治，法律，社会WritingReference:Politics,Law, Society1为满足 2011 年 6 G 网友需求，将小姜老师的拯救我的新 GRE Issue一书样稿，无偿网络发布。此文档为校对稿，网友有任何建议，请电邮至 888，欢迎大家来信，提前感谢各位。本书定于 2011 年 7 月前面市，请勿将本书稿用于任何商业用途，否则追究法律责任。感谢 iShare 爱问支持书稿发布。祝各位旧G 新G 网友考试顺利！10本章目录 Chapter Contents有关政治Politics113公民参与 Civic E

2、ngagement112 Reference 115 政治决策 Political Decision113政治Political Belief112绿色政治哲学 Green Political Philosophy113政治与道德 Politics and Morality112有关政府 Government113政府透明运作Transparency in Government Operations Reference 120 112优质管理 Good Governance113政绩考核 Government Performance Measurement112国家实力 National Po

3、wer113战略计划Strategic Planning112 Reference 125 管理 Crisis Management113政府预测 Government Forecasting113有关领导者 Leaders112广开言路 Leaders and Openness113领导与责任 Leaders and Responsibility112113 Reference 130 领导限制Leader Term Limits有关法律 Law112113113112113法律的作用Functions of Law法律变革 Legal Reform法律与服从 Law and Obedien

4、ce不公平的法律 Unjust Law不合作主义 Civil Disobedience Reference 135 112113112113113法律与道德 Law and Morality权利与权威 Power and Authority 社会与个体 Society and Individuals集体利益 Common Good企业社会责任 Corporate Social Responsibility Reference 140 112113112审查制度 CensorshipScandals2为满足 2011 年 6 G 网友需求，将小姜老师的拯救我的新 GRE Issue一书样稿，无偿

5、网络发布。此文档为校对稿，网友有任何建议，请电邮至 888，欢迎大家来信，提前感谢各位。本书定于 2011 年 7 月前面市，请勿将本书稿用于任何商业用途，否则追究法律责任。感谢 iShare 爱问支持书稿发布。祝各位旧G 新 G 网友考试顺利！3为满足 2011 年 6 G 网友需求，将小姜老师的拯救我的新 GRE Issue一书样稿，无偿网络发布。此文档为校对稿，网友有任何建议，请电邮至 888，欢迎大家来信，提前感谢各位。本书定于 2011 年 7 月前面市，请勿将本书稿用于任何商业用途，否则追究法律责任。感谢 iS

6、hare 爱问支持书稿发布。祝各位旧G 新G 网友考试顺利！Reference113Relevant GRE Issue相关题库题目See Also相关写作参考有关政治Politics【新 16 题】【新50 题】【新68 题】【新114 题】【新115 题】【新139 题】【Ref-119 有关政府】【Ref-127 有关领导者】【Ref-138 权利与权威】【什么是政治】Politics, is a process by which groups ofpossibly help to prevent them or at least to help peoplecarry them off

7、 in a more peaceful, less disruptive manner. Ifpeople make collective decisions. The term is generallyyou live in a country with a functioning government that isapplied to the art or scienceof running governmental orreasonably stable, does a good job of meeting peoplesstate affairs. It also refers t

8、o behavior within civilbasic requirements, and is at least somewhat responsive togovernments. Politics is the activity through which peopleits citizens changing needs and demands, considermake, preserve and amend the general rules under whichyourself lucky that government is one of the greatestthey

9、live. As such, it is an essentially social activity,achievements of the human race.inextricably linked, on the one hand, to the existence ofdiversity and conflict, and on the other to a willingness to【政治变革的原因】Thinkabout all the actions that canco-operate and act collectively. Politics is better seen

10、 as adestabilize or topple a government:search for conflict resolutionthan as its achievement, asnot all conflicts are, or can be, resolved.An environmental catastrophe, like a drought ornatural disaster;An outside attack by an aggressive neighbor;Internal fighting or disorganization among the peopl

11、e in the government;Too much economic inequality, which can cause the have-nots to rise up and take over;A cultural challenge to the justification for the system of government.【 政治与政府的区别】 Wemust know the two distinctconcepts: politics and government. Government is a serious business, while politics

12、is a game with teams competing for victory. Politics is a game. In politics, teams and individuals take risks, and there are winners and losers. Competition is the essence of politics. However, when it comes to the government, collaboration and compromise are necessary. Government should act on the

13、behalf of the public and for the benefit of the well-being and safety of thepublic.【政治变革】 When it comes to government, political revolution is about the biggest change there is. In a revolution, an existing government is forcefully overthrown and replaced by another. The European revolutions of the

14、18th and 19th centuries were horrifically violent and disruptive, and one of the reasons a scientific approach to society seemed so appealing was that if sociologists could determine the causes of political revolutions, they could4为满足 2011 年 6 G 网友需求，将小姜老师的拯救我的新 GRE Issue一书样稿，无偿网络发布。此文档为校对稿，网友有任何建议，

15、请电邮至 888，欢迎大家来信，提前感谢各位。本书定于 2011 年 7 月前面市，请勿将本书稿用于任何商业用途，否则追究法律责任。感谢 iShare 爱问支持书稿发布。祝各位旧G 新G 网友考试顺利！Quotations on PoliticsAll of us who are concerned for peace and triumph of reason and justice must be keenly aware how small an influence reason and honest good will exert uponevent

16、s in the political field.by morality.Oscar Wilde (1854-1900, an Irish-born writer and renowned as a wit in London literary circles)Albert Einstein (1879-1955, a German-born theoretical physicistwho discovered the theory of general relativity)Those who are too smart to engage in politics arePoliticsi

17、s supposedtobe thesecond-oldestpunished by being governed by those who are fession. I have come to realize that it bears a veryPlato (427-347BC, a Greek philosopher, whose written worksclose resemblance to the first.includes The Republic and founded the Academy)Ronald Reagan (1911-2004, th

18、e 40th President of the UnitedStates (19811989) and an actor)Some men change their party for the sake of theirprinciples; others their principles for the sake of theirThe imbecility of men is always inviting the impudenceparty.of power.Winston Churchill (1874-1965, a British politician and statesman

19、Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882, an American lecturer,known for his leadership of the United Kingdom during the Secondphilosopher, essayist, and poet)World War II)Whenever a man has cast a longing eye on offices, aPolitics are almost as exciting as war, and quite asrottenness begins in his conduct.da

20、ngerous. In war you can only be killed once, but inThomas Jefferson (1743-1826, the third President of the Unitedpolitics many times.Winston ChurchillStates (18011809) and the principal author of the Declaration ofIndependence (1776)History is gossip but scandal is gossip made tediousReference114公民参

21、与Civic Engagement【新 16 题】【新 50 题】【新 68 题】【新 114 题】【新 115 题】【新 139 题】【Ref-115 政治决策】【Ref-113 有关政治】【Ref-120 政府透明运作】【Ref-119 有关政府】【Ref-128 广开言路】Relevant GRE Issue相关题库题目See Also相关写作参考【什么是公民参与】Civic engagement refers to a broad set of practices and attitudes of involvement in social and political life tha

22、t converge to increase the health of a democratic society. The concept has assumed increasing importance as a means to reverse the balkanization of individual interests and the rapid disintegration of communal life. Enhancing civic engagement to ensuredemocratic health involves reshaping the individ

23、uals, organizations, and institutions in ways more conducive to democratic participation.【公民参与的意义】Civic engagement has been applied in a variety of contexts from business to community development. Its foundational concept is that both5为满足 2011 年 6 G 网友需求，将小姜老师的拯救我的新 GRE Issue一书样稿，无偿网络发布。此文档为校对稿，网友有任

24、何建议，请电邮至 888，欢迎大家来信，提前感谢各位。本书定于 2011 年 7 月前面市，请勿将本书稿用于任何商业用途，否则追究法律责任。感谢 iShare 爱问支持书稿发布。祝各位旧G 新G 网友考试顺利！discursive and action-oriented involvement creates social and political bonds in a community. Through the process of engagement, the individual sees him or herself as an integra

25、l part of a community where civic judgment isassumption is that when citizens participate in meaningful ways, many problems can be preempted or solved before reaching an adversarial stage.【公民参与的限制】Increasing civic engagement is aenhanced. It is a means to achieve democratic values ofequality and res

26、ponsiveness in policy making, as well as todaunting task with real constraints. For example, civicincrease social capital.engagement requires timeand resources, but modernsociety pulls individuals in conflicting directions. In addition,Proponents of civic engagement accept the legitimacy ofmany comm

27、unities lack the social and political institutionsgoverning institutions but seek to use political andneeded to structure engagement, such as dialogic forumsassociational activities, both formal and informal, asor community meetings. An approach to engagement thatconduits forpromoting democratic hea

28、lth.Politicalrelies disproportionately upon citizens possessing ampleengagement focuses on encouraging activities in publictime and resources risks favoring certain members ofdecisions, such as voting, testifying at public meetings, orsociety over others. Thisencourages the dominance ofvolunteering

29、for campaigns.Associational participationextreme interests, outcomes that civic engagement seekstypically takes place in the social arena and encouragesto avoid.volunteering in nonprofit organizations or visiting an elderlyneighbor. Increased engagement is assumed to pushextreme interests to theperi

30、phery. The underlyingReference115政治决策Political DecisionRelevant GRE Issue相关题库题目See Also相关写作参考【新 16 题】【新 50 题】【新 68 题】【新 114 题】【新 115 题】【新 139 题】【Ref-114 公民参与】【Ref-113 有关政治】【Ref-120 政府透明运作】【Ref-119 有关政府】【Ref-128 广开言路】【Ref-005 决策能力培养】【政府决策与】 In practice, as we know, those politicalother legislative as

31、sembly and it is natural to ask why this is so. If democracy is the best way to make political decisions, why not make it a reality by letting the people themselves decide major questions directly?【公民全面参与政治是不实际的】One answer that is often given at this point is that it is simply impractical for millio

32、ns of ordinary citizens to be involved in making the huge number of decisions that governments have to make today. If they were to try, not only would government be paralyzed, but they would leave themselves no time to do all thosesystems we call democracies give their citizens only a very limited r

33、ole in government. They are entitled to vote at periodic elections, they are occasionally consulted through a referendum when some major constitutional question has to be decided, and they are allowed to form groups to lobby their representatives on issues that concern them, but that is the extent o

34、f their authority. Real power to determine the future of democratic societies rests in the hands of aremarkably small number of people government ministers, civil servants, and to some extent members of parliament or6为满足 2011 年 6 G 网友需求，将小姜老师的拯救我的新 GRE Issue一书样稿，无偿网络发布。此文档为校对稿，网友有任何建议，请电邮至 888jamest

35、，欢迎大家来信，提前感谢各位。本书定于 2011 年 7 月前面市，请勿将本书稿用于任何商业用途，否则追究法律责任。感谢 iShare 爱问支持书稿发布。祝各位旧G 新 G 网友考试顺利！other things that most people think are more important than politics. But this answer is not adequate, because it is not difficult to envisage citizens making general policycircumstances where t

36、here are several options open and there is disagreement about which option is best. What are the elements that go into such a judgment?decisions whose detailed implementation would then be leftFirst of all there is factual information about what willto ministers and others. Theelectronic revolution

37、meanshappen if one or other option is chosen. What effectthat it would now be quite easy to ask citizens for theirwill a particular tax increase have on the economy, forviews on a wide range of issues ranging from war andinstance?peace through taxation andpublic expenditure to animalwelfare and envi

38、ronmental issues. So why is this done onlySecond, there is information about what the peopleon those rare occasions when a referendum is called?who will be affectedby the decision actually prefer.Suppose the tax increase is being considered in order【民众不懂如何政治决策】The reason is that there is ato fund ne

39、w sports facilities, say, how many peoplewidespread belief that ordinary people are simply notactually want these facilities, and how much do theycompetent to understand the issues that lie behind politicalwant them?decisions, and so they are happy to hand these decisionsover to people they regard a

40、s better qualified to deal withThird, there are questions of moral principle. Is it fairthem. An uncompromising statement of this point of viewthat everyone shouldbe taxed to pay for sportscan be found in Joseph Schumpeters book Capitalism,facilities, or should the cost be borne by those who areSoci

41、alism and Democracy (1943), where it is argued thatgoing to use them?the citizens job is to choose a team of leaders to representhim or her, not to attemptto decide issues directly.In most cases, making a political judgment will involve all ofSchumpeter claims that whereas in economic transactions,t

42、hese three elements, although the mix will vary from casefor instance, people experience the results of theirto case. Some issues are primarily technical, so that oncedecisions directly if they buy a defective product, theywe can agree about thefactual questions at stake, thesoon discover their mist

43、ake in the case of politicaldecision will be fairly straightforward.decisions there is no such feedback mechanism, and as a【为什么政治家能可以做决策】But now let us ask whetherresult people lose touch irresponsibly.with reality and behavethe people who are chosen to represent them can be expected to do any bette

44、r, taking each element of politicalThus the typical citizen drops down to a lowerjudgment in turn. One of the great difficulties that beset political decision-making in contemporary societies is that many judgments require factual information that only those who are really expert on the subject in q

45、uestion can provide. This is obviously true when scientific matters are at stake, but the same applies in the case of many economic and social issues, where the problem is to determine what are the likely effects of a proposed new law or policy. Wouldlevel of mental performance as soon as he enters

46、the political field. He argues and analyses in a way which he would readily recognize as infantile within the sphere of his real interests. He becomes a primitive again.This is strong stuff, and what it really entails is that the best we can hope for is what is sometimes called elective aristocracy,

47、 where all that can be asked of the ordinary citizen is that she should be able to recognize people who are competent to make decisions on her behalf (and to vote them out of office if they prove not to be). Whatever its other virtues, such a system hardly matches the democratic ideal that political

48、 authority must rest in the hands of the people as a whole. So what can we say in response to Schumpeters skepticism? Let us look more closely at what is involved in reaching political decisions.【政治决策过程】A political decision essentially requires a political judgment about what ought to be done inlega

49、lizingincrease or decrease the number ofthose who end up takingand other hard drugs, forinstance? The answer to such questions is far from obvious, and elected politicians and civil servants in general have no more expertise in answering them than the rest of us. Like us, they have to rely on the op

50、inions of those who do havesome expertise, and where those opinions differ, they have to make a judgment about who is more reliable. So far, there is no reason to think that an elective aristocracy will make better judgments than the general public.【民众意愿】The next element is to discover what peoples7

51、为满足 2011 年 6 G 网友需求，将小姜老师的拯救我的新 GRE Issue一书样稿，无偿网络发布。此文档为校对稿，网友有任何建议，请电邮至 888，欢迎大家来信，提前感谢各位。本书定于 2011 年 7 月前面市，请勿将本书稿用于任何商业用途，否则追究法律责任。感谢 iShare 爱问支持书稿发布。祝各位旧G 新 G 网友考试顺利！preferences are, and how strong they are, and here, you may well think, democracy has a decisive advantage. For

52、 when decisions are taken democratically everyone has a chance to contribute, and so the views and preferences ofpolitical life in a democratic society. So there is no reason to think that if citizens were asked to decide issues directly, they would make a worse job of it on moral grounds than the p

53、eople they currently choose to represent them.people from different social classes, different ethnic andBut can we really separate these three elements of politicalreligious backgrounds, and so forth, will all be heard,judgment, or is political expertise precisely a matter ofwhereas the political cl

54、asswho govern us today arebeing able to combinerelevant factual information,predominantly white, male, and middle class.knowledge of citizens interests and preferences, and moral【道德准则】Moral principles are involved in almost allprinciple, to find the bestsolution to a political dilemma?There is certa

55、inly something in this challenge. Politicalpolitical decisions, not only those involving so-called moraldecisions are often hardto make: they may requireissuessuchasabortionorthelegalizationofmastering some complex information, or weighing up twohomosexuality. Typically the question is whether afine

56、ly balanced moral arguments. People who have toproposed piece of legislation treats all individuals or allmake them frequently get better at doing so. But this is notgroups fairly, or whether it infringes any of their rights. Dobecause they have some special inborn capacity denied tomembers of the political class have any deeper knowledgethe rest of us. There is noreason to think that ordinaryof the relevant principles than ordinary citizens? It is difficultmembers of the public, given the time and the infor