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下呼吸道感染的诊治进展 北京大学第一医院呼吸内科 王广发 Pathogens of LRT Infection 细菌 需氧G+球菌 需氧G-杆菌 厌氧菌 病毒 真菌 支原体 立克次体 衣原体 原虫Pneumocystis carinii Ten Leading Causes of Death, United States, 1997 l1 Heart disease 726,974 l2 Malignant neoplasms 539,577 l3 Cerebrovascular 159,791 l4 Bronchitis, Emphysema, Asthma 109,029 l5 Unintentional injury and adverse effects 95,644 l6 Pneumonia increase in mortality Community Acquired Pneumonia Mortality Changes of hosts in recent years l人口老龄化低免疫人群的不断增加 l肾上腺皮质激素、免疫抑制剂降低了宿主免疫功能 l有创医疗技术广泛应用增加了细菌入侵的途径 l某些疾病的日益增多糖尿病、AIDS Changes of Pathogens in Bacterial Pneumonia *病原的多样化 *革兰氏阴性杆菌性肺炎日益多见 *原先认为不致病的微生物发现具有致病性 *新病原的出现-军团菌 *细菌耐药成为日益普遍的现象(MRSA,ESBL) 细菌耐药 甲氧西林耐药的金黄色葡萄球菌(MRSA) 甲氧西林耐药的表皮葡萄球菌(MRSE) 万古霉素中度敏感的金葡菌 (VISA) 万古霉素耐药的肠球菌(VRE) 青霉素耐药的肺炎链球菌( PRSP) 超广谱-内酰胺酶 (ESBLs) AmpC 碳青霉烯酶 多重耐药菌的分离率 1999年 NNIS调查资料与1994年资料的比较 l万古霉素耐药肠球菌:从15% 到 26% l甲氧西林耐药金黄色葡萄球菌:从38%到55% l克雷伯菌对三代头孢菌素的耐药率:从7% 到9% l铜绿假单胞菌对亚胺培南的耐药率:从12%到19% l铜绿假单胞菌对喹诺酮类耐药率:从12%到23% l肠杆菌属细菌对三代头孢菌素的耐药率:从34%到 37% 获得性细菌耐药 直接从另一株细菌获得耐药质粒,质粒上携带有 耐药基因 通过病毒转染从其他细菌获得耐药基因 染色体突变 从死细菌中获得DNA 万古霉素耐药的肠球菌 万古霉素的用量 万古霉素的用量 Kg 耐药率% 产 ESBL菌株分离率的地区差异 (1998 - 2000) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 澳大利亚日本台湾中国香港菲律宾新加坡 大肠杆菌 肺炎克雷伯杆菌 南非 SENTRY ESBL 阳性百分比 产 ESBL 的地区差异 (1998-2000) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 阴沟肠杆菌 粘质沙雷杆菌 澳大利亚日本台湾中国香港菲律宾新加坡南非 SENTRY ESBL 阳性百分比 在中国十家医院用在中国十家医院用E-testE-test法评估六种广谱法评估六种广谱b b- -内酰胺药内酰胺药 对分离细菌株的体外活性对分离细菌株的体外活性 l细菌 数 主要细菌 l大肠埃希菌 107 l肠杆菌属 109 阴沟肠杆菌 l克雷伯菌属 120 肺炎克雷伯菌 l沙雷菌属 88 黏质沙雷菌 l枸橼酸菌属 100 弗劳地枸橼酸菌 l吲哚阳性变形杆菌属 76 普通变形,摩根 l绿脓假单胞菌 100 l不动杆菌属 99 鲍曼不动杆菌 l金黄色葡萄球菌(Oxs) 101 l凝固酶阴性葡萄球菌 37 表皮葡萄球菌 l总计 937 北京协和医院陈民钧教授等 937937株细菌对六种药物的总体敏感性排序株细菌对六种药物的总体敏感性排序 l药物总体敏感率 l亚胺培南96.5 l马斯平(头孢吡肟) 89.1 l头孢哌酮/舒巴坦85.8 l头孢他啶75.5 l头孢曲松66.9 l哌拉西林57.1 北京协和医院陈民钧教授等 北京协和医院陈民钧教授等 l药名耐药中介 MIC50 MIC90 l头孢吡肟17.011.0364 l头孢他啶 18.00.01.564 l头孢曲松50.047.0 32512 l亚胺培南21.0 7.0332 l头孢哌酮/舒巴坦17.0 11.0464 l哌拉西林 23.0 0.0 8 512 六种抗微生物药对六种抗微生物药对 100100株铜绿假单胞菌的活性株铜绿假单胞菌的活性 细菌的进化与耐药 inactivation impermeability efflux AB By-pass Altered target 细菌对抗生素的耐药机制 l细胞内药物浓度降低 外排增多 四环素(tetA) 氟喹诺酮类(norA) 外膜通透性降低 内酰胺类(OmpF;OprD) 氟喹诺酮类(OmpF) 细胞膜运输能力降低 氨基糖甙类(低能量) l药物失活 内酰胺类( 内酰胺酶) 氨基糖甙类(修饰酶) 磷霉素(谷胱甘肽结合) 氯霉素(灭活酶) l靶位修饰 氟喹诺酮类(旋转酶修饰) 利福平(DNA聚合酶结合) 内酰胺类(PBP改变) 大环内酯类(rRNA甲基化) l靶位旁路 糖肽类(vanA、vanB) 甲氧苄定(胸腺嘧啶缺陷株) 内酰胺酶的分类(1) l1973年 Richmond 132:621-30 (P = 0.022) (P 65 years25-44 per 1000/year 65 years (institutionalized)68-114 per 1000/year lHospitalization GPs office17-35 % lMortality Overall1-3 % Hospitalized patients6-24 % Requiring ICU22-57 % NiedermanNiederman, MS, et al (1986). , MS, et al (1986). CritCrit Care Care ClinClin. 2(3):471-95. . 2(3):471-95. MarrieMarrie, TJ (1994). , TJ (1994). ClinClin Infect Infect DisDis 18(4):501-13; 18(4):501-13; MarrieMarrie TJ 9(1998). TJ 9(1998). Infect Infect DisDis ClinClin North Am North Am 2(3):723-40 2(3):723-40 051015202530 S. S. pneumoniaepneumoniae C. C. pneumoniaepneumoniae* * ViralViral M . M . pneumoniaepneumoniae LegionellaLegionella sp. sp. H. H. influenzaeinfluenzae G-G-negneg enterobacteriaenterobacteria C C psittacipsittaci CoxiellaCoxiella burnetiiburnetii StaphStaph aureusaureus M. M. catarrhaliscatarrhalis OtherOther Data from 26 prospective studies (5961 adults) from 10 countries. * Data from six Data from 26 prospective studies (5961 adults) from 10 countries. * Data from six studies studies WoodheadWoodhead, MA (1998), MA (1998) Community Acquired Pneumonia: Bacteriology in Hospitalized Pts Common pathogens associated with CAP Hospitalized patients Ambulatory patientsNon-ICUICU (severe)* Streptococcus pneumoniaeS pneumoniaeS pneumoniae Mycoplasma pneumoniaeM pneumoniaeH influenzae Haemophilus influenzaeC pneumoniaeLegionella Chlamydia pneumoniaeH influenzaeGram-negative bacilli VirusesLegionellaStaphylococcus aureus *Excluding Pneumocystis.File TM, Tan JS Curr Opin Pulm Med. 1997;3:89-97. Streptococcus Pneumoniae 为G(+)球菌,呼吸道寄生 有多糖体荚膜(86种亚型) 80%为1-8型多见,以1-3型最 多,3型毒力最强 不产生具有组织破坏作用的 毒素不形成空洞 右上叶后段肺炎 Mortality of Pneumococcol Pneumonia in Pre -antibiotic and antibiotic era S. pneumoniae: prevalence of penicillin- intermediate and -resistant strains SW USA 12% 28% NE USA 10% 20% Brazil 29% 1% Mexico 27% 25% South Africa 55% 25% Saudi Arabia 44% 18% Hong Kong 6% 74% pen-I (penicillin MIC 0.121 g/ml) pen-R (penicillin MIC 2 g/ml) The Alexander Project 1999, SmithKline Beecham data on file UK 6% 8% Belgium 6% 13% Spain 10% 37% France 17% 45% Germany 1% 4% Poland 5% 17% Switzerland 3% 11% Italy 7% 6% Portugal 13% 10% Czech Republic 1% 2% Slovak Republic 15% 15% S. pneumoniae: prevalence of penicillin- intermediate and -resistant strains pen-I (penicillin MIC 0.121 g/ml) pen-R (penicillin MIC 2 g/ml) The Alexander Project 1999, SmithKline Beecham data on file Penicillin Non-Susceptible Streptococcus pneumoniae in the US % of isolates resistant to penicillin* Year *MIC 0.1 to 1.0 g/mL (intermediate) and 2.0 g/mL (high level) penicillin resistance Appelbaum PC. Clin Infect Dis. 1992;15:77-83. Breiman RF, et al. JAMA. 1994;271:1831-1835. Doern GV, et al. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1996;40:1208- 1213. Thornsberry C, et al. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 1997;29:249-257. Thornsberry C, et al. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1999;44:749-759. Thornsberry C, et al. In: Abstracts of the 39th ICAAC, 1999, abstract 820. Selman, L. In: Abstracts of the 40th ICAAC, 2000, abstract 1789. Selman, L. In: Abstracts of the 40th ICAAC, 2000, abstract 1800. Selman, L. In: Abstracts of the 38th IDSA, 2000, abstract 200233. Data on file at Ortho-McNeil Pham. Streptococcus pneumoniae strains recovered from LRT with intermediate and high levels of resistance Doern GV,Emerging Infectious Diseases 5(6), 1999. CDC 多药耐药的肺炎链球菌常见耐药类型 lpenicillin and TMP/SMX (6.9%) lpenicillin, macrolide, and chloramphenicol (4.6%) lpenicillin, macrolide, tetracycline, and TMP/SMX (3.6%) lpenicillin, macrolide, tetracycline, TMP/SMX, and chloramphenicol ( 5.4% ) Doern GV,Emerging Infectious Diseases 5(6), 1999. CDC The prevalence of macrolide-resistant S. pneumoniae: 19921999 Prevalence of macrolide resistance (erythro MIC 1 g/ml; %) Year Felmingham et al. J Chemother 1999;11:521 The Alexander Project 1998/1999. Data available on request from SmithKline Beecham The Alexander Project 1997 () 喹诺酮耐药的肺炎链球菌 喹诺酮耐药逐渐增加 (cipro MIC 4 mg/L) 0% in 1993, 3.7% in 1998, 成人 耐药的增多与氟喹诺酮类使用量相关 处方量每年0.8%增至5.5%(1988-1997) 喹诺酮耐药存在差异: cipro levofloxacin sparfloxacin grepafloxacin trovafloxacin gatifloxacin moxifloxacin gemifloxacin 42.9%对青霉素耐药的肺炎链球菌对环丙沙星也耐药 中国5个城市肺炎链球菌对6种抗生素的敏感率(MIC90) 北 京 (N418) 成 都 (N42) 沈 阳 (N57) 广 州 (N36) 上 海 (N34) 青霉素87.8(0.094)64.7(0.25)77.8(0.38)61.8 (2) 阿莫/克拉100(0.023)100(0.5)100(0.125)100(0.25)87.3 (4) 头孢呋肟97.8(0.19)100(0.25)94.7(0.5)93.7(0.38)67.6 (4) 头孢 曲松99.1(0.064)94.7(0.25)91.8(0.125)82.4 (1) 头孢噻肟99.0(0.064)97.6(0.125)94.7(0.125)94.5(0.064)79.4(0.064) 万古霉素100.0(0.5)100 (1) 100 (1) Penicillins Alteration in penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) Cephalosporins Alterations in PBP2x, PBP1a Macrolides Efflux pump alteration (mef E) Ribosomal methylase (erm AM) Spontaneous mutations Fluoroquinolones Alterations in DNA gyrase (gyr A and gyr B) Alteration in topoisomerase IV (par C and par E) Mechanisms of Antibiotic Resistance in S pneumoniae 肺炎链球菌肺炎的治疗 l青霉素G为首选药物 l青霉素过敏者红霉素、洁霉素、一代头孢菌素 l对青霉素中中介(MIC0.1-2ug/ml) 加大剂量,每日600万单位。 l对青霉素高度耐药(MIC 2ug/ml) 头孢曲松/头孢噻肟、新喹诺酮类、万古霉素,亚 胺培南、万古霉素、壁霉素、利福平 lG-,含荚膜,营养条件要求高,在巧克力平板生长,根据 荚膜分为A、B、C、D、E、F6个血清型,B型致病力最强也最常见 l感染率20%+ l发病机理:内毒素-致病过程有重要作用 荚膜其有抗吞噬作用 菌毛粘附定植 IgA蛋白酶 l支气管肺炎,叶或段的浸润影、空洞、脓胸 l治疗:AM/CL, TMP/SMX, oral ceph2/3,Cefotaxime, Ceftriaxone、 IMP, MER, Ciprofloxacin 流感嗜血杆菌(Haemophilus influenzae) H. influenzae Resistance Trust IV 2000 Abstracts of the 40th ICAAC, 2000, abstract 1800. Selman, L. In: Abstracts of the 38th IDSA, 2000, abstract 200233 Data on file Ortho-McNeil Pharmaceutical H. influenzae Increasing Beta Lactamase Production 1997-19981997-1998年亚欧流感嗜血杆菌药敏检测年亚欧流感嗜血杆菌药敏检测 Atypical Pneumonia lThe term “atypical pneumonia“ is commonly used to describe a form of pneumonia in which systemic symptoms are usually more pronounced than respiratory symptoms. Atypical Respiratory Pathogens lMycoplasma pneumoniae lLegionella species lChlamydia pneumoniae lOthers:respiratory viruses, (influenza A and B, parainfluenza viruses, and respiratory syncytial virus), Chlamydia psittaci(鹦鹉热衣原 体),and Coxiella burnetii(伯氏柯克斯体) Mycoplasma pneumoniae l为能在无细胞培养基上生长的最小微生物, l无细胞壁,结构简单,营养要求高,生长需要胆固醇 l对四环素和大环内酯类敏感 l肺炎支原体能产生过氧化氢及超氧化物溶血素 l与呼吸道上皮粘附获取外源营养物质 l可以进入细胞内生长 l造成上皮细胞及其纤毛的损伤 l容易与其它病原同时感染宿主 l美国每年2百万例肺炎支原体感染 l其中约5%导致肺炎,相当于 2例/1000人口/年 l约20%肺炎支原体的感染没有症状,多数呼吸道症状 轻微 l肺炎支原体可以引起爆发流行( a report by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention of an outbreak in Colorado) Mycoplasma pneumoniae 肺炎支原体(Mycoplasma pneumoniae) l年轻人及儿童多见,秋季发病多,潜伏期 2-3周 l体温在37.8-39,可伴有头痛、肌痛 l病理以间质性炎症为主 l咳痰:少量粘液毯或干咳 l胸片多表现为斑片状,有时呈网状、云雾 状、粟粒状或间质浸润 lWBC正常或轻度升高 l冷凝集试验补体依赖性抗体, l中耳炎, 溶血, 神经系统的损害-周围神 经炎、脑膜炎、脊髓炎、神经根炎 lErythromycin, Tetracycline疗程:7- 10d 支原体肺炎 Cold Agglutinin Blood are collected in Wasserman tube containing NaEDTA Definite floccular agglutination seen with unaided eye (upper panel) Disappears upon warming to 37 (bottom panel) Legionella Species l革兰氏阴性杆菌、需氧、不产生芽孢、无荚膜 l军团菌超过40种 l嗜肺军团杆菌(Legionella pneumophila)为主要多数 军团菌肺炎(军团病)的病原 lL. pneumophila: 15个血清型, 1型最常见 lL. pneumophila serogroup 1 可通过尿液检测抗原 Dieterle stain of sputum Legionella l被吞噬后,在呼吸道巨噬细胞胞体内繁殖 l释放细胞毒素杀死吞噬细胞释放到细胞外 l在潮湿环境中繁殖,传播水源、空调器、雾化器 l污染中央空调系统可引发爆发流行 l危险因素:高龄、酗酒、吸烟、慢性疾病、器官移植 l死亡率:免疫功能正常者5-25% 嗜肺军团杆菌(Legionella pneumophila) l夏秋发病多,潜伏期2-10天,可伴有消化、神经系统症状、相 对缓脉,临床分型流感样型(Pontiac fever)、肺炎型 l病理:融合的支气管肺炎伴小脓腔形成 l干咳或血丝痰,WBC1-2万 l培养方法:BCYE培养基或PCYE培养基 l抗体:间接荧光抗体大于等于1:128或恢复期血清大于等于1: 256,两次抗体滴度增加4倍以上 l检测痰液、组织和尿中的抗原有重要的诊断价值 lBAL等的Gimsa染色可以发现细菌 l并发症: Empyema, Cavitation, Endocarditis, Pericarditis, myositis, ARF l红霉素每日2-4g,疗程:3w ltrovafloxacin, levofloxacin, moxifloxacin and rifampicin X线特点: l1、病变双侧、多发; l2、进展迅速; l3、多样性:大片、斑片、斑点结节状、条索 、纱网状 l4、空洞出现快而闭合慢; l5、炎症吸收慢 嗜肺军团杆菌(Legionella pneumophila) 军团菌肺炎 入院日入院第3日入院第5日 Chlamydia pneumoniae l1986年首次发现为呼吸道病原 l预先存在于细胞内An obligate, intracellular bacterium. l双相生长周期在细胞内以网状体形式繁殖 l释放抗原到上皮表面引起炎症反应并导致纤毛运动障 碍 lC. pneumoniae 缺乏细胞壁 l为成人及儿童肺炎的常见病原 l超过50%的成人曾有过感染 Chlamydia pneumoniae l并非终生免疫 l潜伏期:2-4周 l症状通常轻微,也可病程迁延 l发热及咳嗽为常见的症状,胸部体检可有湿性罗音 lC. pneumoniae pneumonia: 双相病程 咽炎痊愈 1-3周后肺炎 l病死率 : 住院患者9.8% lChlamydial complement fixation antibody testing: IgM or IgG elevations that take a minimum of 2-3 weeks to rise after acute infection. Pneumonia of Mixed Etiology lAtypical pathogens frequently appear as mixed infections l1/32/3 are likely coinfections, with S. pneumoniae lthe presence of at least one other pathogen in: 33-64% of M. pneumoniae infections 48-74% of C. pneumoniae infections 54-63% of Legionella infections Treatment of Atypical pathogens lSince C. pneumoniae and M. pneumoniae lack a peptidoglycan wall, -lactam antimicrobial agents are ineffective against them. lC. pneumoniae and Legionella species can reside in or replicate within cells, necessitating the use of antimicrobials that are active intracellularly. lSuitable treatment options are macrolides, fluoroquinolones, or members of the new ketolide class of antimicrobials. lTetracyclines may be used to treat C. pneumoniae or M. pneumoniae Treatment of CAP lEmpiric therapy and pathogen-directed therapy lInitiation of prompt antimicrobial therapy is crucial to minimize morbidity, mortality, and health care costs. lAntibiotic administration within 8 hours of hospital arrival has been associated with a lower 30-day mortality. lDelaying antibiotic administration may increase complications or result in prolonged hospitalizations Community-Acquired Pneumonia (CAP) Year 2002 Antibiotic Selection and Management Update Evaluation, Risk Stratification, and Current Antimicrobial Treatment Guidelines for Hospital-Based Management of CAP: Outcome-Effective Strategies Based on New NCCLS Breakpoints and Recent Clinical Studies The ASCAP Panel* Consensus Report, 2002 Antibiotic Selection for Community-Acquired Pnuemonia Factors Associated with an Increased Risk for Mortality of CAP lIncreasing age(65) lAlcoholism lChronic lung disease lImmunodeficiency lSpecific laboratory abnormalities(azotemia and hypoxemia) High Risk for Mortality(Radiograph) lBilateral effusions lModerate-size pleural effusions lMulti-lobar involvement lBilateral infiltrates Patient characteristicsPoints Demographic factors MaleAge (y) FemaleAge (y)- 10 Nursing home resident10 Comorbidities Neoplastic disease30 Liver disease20 Congestive HF10 Cerebrovascular dis10 Renal disease10 Physical examination findings Altered mental status20 Respiratory rate 30 breaths/min20 Systolic blood pressure 40C (104F)15 Pulse rate 125 beats/min10 Laboratory findings pH 10.7 mmol/L20 Sodium 13.9 mmol/L10 Hematocrit 130 points Risk classification of patients with CAP Males ages older than 70 years and females ages older than80 years would be assigned to Class Patient Management lOutpatient management Class7:23-6 用胃粘膜保护剂的病人用胃粘膜保护剂的病人VAPVAP发生率低发生率低 q 244 例MV病人的随机研究 q 雷尼替丁、制酸剂与硫糖铝比较 q 两组肉眼观的胃出血发生率无差别,早发性 VAP的 发生率无差别 q 迟发性VAP: 硫糖铝 雷尼替丁 制酸剂 5% 21% 16% p38.3 WBC12,000/ul 脓性分泌物 敏感性 69% 特异性 75% 尸检研究 Torres A, et al. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994;149:324-331 临床肺部感染评分临床肺部感染评分(CPIS)(CPIS)

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