[外语学习]写作讲座系列.ppt

写作讲座 I.写作概述 A. 基本要求 B.1 篇幅：120-150字 达不到字数要求的，要酌情扣1-5分 ； 90-99 扣1分，80-90扣2分，70- 79扣3分，60-69扣5分； 2 布局：三段式 只写一段为0-4分，只写两段0-9分 ； 3 评分标准： 2分- 条理不清，思路紊乱，语言支离破 碎或大部分句子均有错误,但多数为严重错误； 5分- 基本切题。表达思想不清楚，连贯性 差。有较多的严重语言错误； 8分- 基本切题。有些地方表达思想不过清 楚，文字勉强连贯；语言错误相当多，其中有 一些是严重错误； 11分- 切题。表达思想清楚，文字连贯， 但有少量语言错误； 14分- 切题。表达思想清楚，文字通顺， 连贯性较好。基本上无语言错误，仅有个别小 错误。 例如： 1） 有人认为机会是极少的 2） 有人认为机会人人都有 3） 我的看法 Sample 1 As to the opportunity, there is two different opinions: first, someone think the opportunity is little in their life. Secondly, someone consider that opportunity is existing everywhere everybody has some kinds of chance. According to my life experiment and knowledge I agree with the second idea. There is chance for everyone in some unexpected case. But if you has no preparing for it, the opportunity will lose. Those who have many preparation and much knowledge, and some good virtue, may I quip the opportunity firmly. For example, two man are appealing for a job in a company, and there is only one vacant job for the only one of the two man. How, the two man has an opportunity to get the Job but the boss certainly would accept the good one. So I think the opportunity is existing to every one, but more opportunity is belongs to who has knowledge, experience, encourage and confident. 该篇文章条理不清，思想紊乱，语言 支离破碎，几乎没有正确的句子，得2分 。 Sample 2 Some one thinks that the opportunity is very few for him because he has never meet the chance. But other one thinks there are chances here and there, then everyone can meet opportunity. I resist the second opinion. There to are some opportunities, the important thing is that if we could catch the chance when we meet it. In our lives we have a lot of choice that need us take our heart to. For example, when I was a little boy, my health was very bad. One day a teacher advise me to join the basketball with my friends. My health become well. So I think there are opportunities for everyone. 该篇文章基本切题，但思想表达不清 楚，有很多严重的语言错误，属于5分档 。 Sample 3 Some people think that they lack of opportunities, while others think that everyone will face to some ones. I agree to the latter. In fact, we are living on the same world. Most of us must deal with a lot of things every day. Some peoples circumstances are even the same, so do the opportunities. However, why someone can grasp it but others cannot? All this depends on the careful observation and grasping the opportunity in time. For instance, we students in our college, whose circumstance are the same. We all should study a lot of courses before we graduate. But some of us study hard in order to learn more and well, while some dont. In the end, the hard-working students get the better jobs. At that time, there are some students who have been playing all the time will say that they lack of opportunities. As we know that the hard-working students make the best use of their time and they observe everything around them carefully, so that they can grasp the opportunities in time. In a word, the opportunity is equal to everyday, and whether we can grasp it or not is critical. 该篇文章基本切题，有些地方表达不 清，文字勉强连贯，但语言错误较多，其 中有一些为严重错误。属于11分档。 Sample 4 People have different views on opportunity. Some think that there are few opportunities for them in the world, while others hold that everybody will have some kind of chances in his or her life. As far as I am concerned, I am for the latter. People who claim that they dont have good luck may be those who are not able to take chances. Maybe they fail to recognize opportunities even when they are in front of them. However, wise man wise men can seek opportunities rather than wait for chances to appear. For example, almost everybody had watched apples falling from apple trees, but only Newton discovered the Law of Gravity. In fact, no one can be denied of the access to opportunity. People may have good luck sometimes, but no one can be lucky all the time. As a saying goes, every dog has its day. So everybody can have a chance to succeed. So we can conclude that everybody has the opportunity to succeed, but it is up to himself to take it. 该篇文章切题，思想表达清楚，文章 结构条理，行文连贯，符合逻辑，属于14 分档作文。 4 行文要求 1） 切题：统一，无不相关细节内容； Beethovens demand for perfection meant long and hard work. Unlike Mozart, he couldnt dash off three great symphonies in six weeks. It doesnt mean he was not as talented as Mozart. Beethovens music was different from Mozarts. Sometime he worked years on a single symphony, writing other works at the same time. He carried music sketchbooks everywhere, jotting down new ideas, revising and refining old ones. These early notes often seem crude and uninspired when compared with their final versions, which were hammered out through great labor. Beethoven was often in poverty, though he produced great music. 本段文字中红体部分显然与主题 Beethovens demand for perfection meant long and hard work.无关，应该去掉。 2） 条理清楚：连贯、和谐 - 注意衔接语的 使用 In their hurry to get practical preparations for a career, students often overlook the liberal arts college. Yet, there are good reasons why they should consider a liberal arts school, even if getting a job is their main concern. For one thing, learning itself may be more exciting in a liberal arts college for the its course is more flexible than that of a technical school. Thus students may do better in their course and earn higher grades, which will certainly make them more attractive to employers. More important, a liberal arts education is the most likely to develop ones ability to think, to read, and write, which business and industry are coming to value more and more. Finally, students should realize that a liberal arts education has always been a preferred path for top professions: law, medicine, government, and education. 3） 简洁：句子要简练； 4） 准确：减少语法错误，符合英语的表 达习惯，避免汉语式英语； 5 卷面：整洁 B、 四六级英语写作类型 1 体裁：说明文，议论文 最近几年的四六级作文的体裁以说明 文和议论文为主。 说明文如：How to Succeed in a Job Interview （2000，12，四级）, How I Finance My College Education（2000，1 四级）, Practice Makes Perfect， Haste Makes Waste（97，1 六级） 议论文如：Dont Hesitate to Say “NO“（99，1 四级和六级）, Can Money Buy Happiness（95，1 四级）, Is a Test of Spoken English Necessary？（2000，6 四级） Reading Selectively or Extensively? (99，6六级)，Do “Lucky Numbers“ Really Bring Good Luck? (98,6 四级和六级) 2段落类型：比较/对比，列举，程序等 说明和议论文章所采用的文章扩展模 式一般以比较/对照，举例、列举、因果 、程序等者居多。如： Dont Hesitate to Say “NO“, Reading Selectively or Extensively等很多四六级写 作中都涉及到两种观点的对比，整体的段 落类型为对照型。 Practice Makes Perfect, Harmfulness of Fake Commodities等可采用因果行的段落 结构模式，也可以采用举例说明的结构模 式。Advantages of a Job Interview则应采 用列举的段落扩展模式。 3 出题方式：提纲式写作，中文提纲， 一般为三句或两句； 如：99年1月分考题 Directions: For this part, you are allowed thirty minutes to write a composition on the topic: Dont Hesitate to Say “NO“. You should write at least 100 words and you should base your composition on the outline (given in Chinese) below. 1. 别人请求帮助时，在什么情况下我们会说 “不”。 2. 为什么有些人在该说“不”的时候不说“ 不”。 3. 该说“不”时不说“不”的坏处。 再如：98年一月分考题 Directions: For this part, you are allowed thirty minutes to write a composition on the topic: Harmfulness of Fake Commodities. You should write at least 100 words and you should base your composition on the outline (given in Chinese) below. 1. 目前社会上有不少假冒伪劣商品(fake commodities)。为什么会有这种现象？ 2. 举例说明假冒伪劣商品对消费者个人、社 会等的危害。 II. 写作要领 短文写作应能：1) 做到语法、拼写、标 点正确，用词恰当；2) 遵循文章的特定 文体格式；3) 合理组织文章结构，使其 内容统一、连贯；4) 根据写作目的和特 定读者，恰当选用语言。考生应根据提 示信息写出不少于120词的短文。提示信 息的形式有主题句、写作提纲、规定情 景、图、表等。 一般说来，短文包括引言段 (introduction)、正文（body或 development）和结论段（conclusion ）。1)引言段对短文的主题进行简要的介 绍以引起读者的兴趣，并说明短文要讨论 的问题。2)正文对引言段中提出的论题通 过描述、对比、举例等手段进行论述。3) 在结论段中，考生应综合上述内容进一步 明确主题以及阐明自己的观点或评论。 A.短文的结构 段落一般包括主题句（topic sentence）、扩展句或称阐述句 (supporting sentence) 和结论句 (concluding sentence)。主题句说明段 落的主题；扩展句使主题句的意思和论点 更具体，但要从属于主题句。结论句总括 全段，是由扩展句归纳或推理出来的结论 性认识。主题句大多位于段首，这有利于 紧扣主题。但主题句位于段末可产生强烈 的效果，加深对中心思想的印象。 B. 段落的结构 1. 演绎法 (deduction organization) 演绎法是从一般到具体推理的写作方法 。 其主题句位于段落的开头，点明段落的中 心 思想，而其后续的句子为拓展句，围绕主 题 而写。最后为结论句，进一步概括和提升 华 主题。 e.g. Self-confidence C. 段落写作方法 Self-confidence 1) Self-confidence is very necessary to your success in life. 2) For one thing, it helps keep you calm , from the very beginning, in the face of what you are unfamiliar with. 3) More often than not, you feel confused at the thought of something foreign to you, but self confidence can give you enough courage to face up to it. 4) For another, it helps you to draw upon more of your potentials. 5) Whenever things go wrong in the course of your struggle, self- confidence enables you to play your cards better than is supposed to. 6) In short, self-confidence is one of the decisive contributors to your success in anything. 2. 归纳法(induction organization) 归纳法是从具体到一般推理的写作 方法。其主题句位于段尾，表明作者的 观点，是全段的中心思想。而之前的句 子用于阐明结论性观点的根由和依据。 Self-confidence 1) You need self-confidence to meet the challenges of everything new in life. 2) Once faced with anything unfamiliar to you, you can feel self- confidence at work, for it enables you to get it under your control. 3) Furthermore , you need self-confidence to lift you out of any difficult situation. 4) It often happens that you run into many troubles on your way to the final goal; and in this case, self-confidence or the strong will to succeed gives fuller play to your capacities, thus changing the things for the better. 5) To sum up, therefore, self-confidence serves as a decisive factor for your success in life. 3.无主题句段：此类段落的主题思想 已在上段的结尾句阐明。故其段首句则 直接切入要论述的具体内容。 On the War 1) Like it or not, the wars like the Iraqi one have been part of human society. 2) A backward look at the last 50 years, for example, can find that the human society as a whole has suffered countless wars, like Korean War, Vietnam War, the war between Arab and Israeli, the war between Iraq and Iran, the Gulf War, the Yugoslavia War, etc. 3) To keep them far away from our peaceful life forever, it is necessary to turn our attention first to their causes. (无主题句段)4) One major factor for the wars is the swelling of one countrys ambition for world or regional conquest. 5) Driven by such a boundless ambition, the country-to-invade tries to find one or more excuses to start a war, such as terrorism, human rights, nuclear threat, axis powers of evil, etc. 6) Another factor arises from the problem that the country- to-be- invaded, like Yugoslavia, is cursed with a turbulent society, which in turn invites the interference from a more dangerous wolf. 7) And the most basic factor lies in the fact that the victim country is far from strong to win the forthcoming war. 8) If Iraq had been as strong as or stronger in military capabilities than the United States, for instance, there would not have been such a war as in the Middle East. 9) The most pressing for us now, therefore, is how to prevent them from breaking out in the future. 10) From my angle of view, the best course of action open to us is to develop our nation into one strong enough to repel the invasion from any enemy country. 11) For this goal to turn into reality, however, there is much need to keep our society stable and peaceful. 12) In short, where there is better preparation against a war, there is less risk of its outbreak. 综上所述，段落写作应该注意以下几 点： 段首句通常是主题句，介绍段落的主 题； 要通过罗列、引证、递进、因果、对 比等段落拓展手法围绕主题句来写扩展 句； 最后一句要尽量作一个概括或其他类 似的结尾，并注意和下段的衔接. D. 实现连贯性的方法 罗列法(listing)： first(ly) second(ly)third(ly) and lastly / finally / above all In the first place in the second and in the last for one thing for another and still for another My Love for You 1) My love for you can be stated from three perspectives. 2) First, your heart is as pure as pure can be, as confirmed in your sympathy for the disabled. 3) Second, your eyes are rich with emotions, which will add no little to our romantic life. 4) And above all, what you have done for me is making me more and more hungry for you. 5) In one word, there is not any girl in the world who is more attractive to me than you. 2. 引证法(exemplification): for example, for instance such as, like a case in point, another case in point to cite an example, to quote another example to be more concrete, to put it in more detail On Honesty 1)There is a sharp decline of honesty in our social life. 2) For example, the absence of honesty in business has given rise to the flood of fake goods in our markets. 3) To cite another example, the lack of honesty in our official circles has led to more and more corrupt officials. 4) Clearly, honesty has gone out of much of our social life, which is well worth more of our concern. 3. 递进法(addition) besides, in addition, moreover, furthermore, whats more similarly, likewise, The same is true of, The same holds true for, in the same way meanwhile, at the same time, in the meantime, concurrently, Only in this way can sth. / sb. Practice makes perfect 1) Practice makes perfect. 2) The more practice you make of something, the better you will be at doing it. 3) The same holds true for your English learning. 4) In the course of which, you have to practice speaking, listening, reading, writing so as to make yourself master of the language. 5) Only through sufficient practice can you stand the chance of perfecting yourself in English. How to Adapt Yourself to the Future 1) To build up your adaptability to the future life, to my mind, you must enrich yourself with as much specialized knowledge as possible. 2) And meanwhile, you have to find enough time to familiarize yourself with the progress of the society in which you live. 3) Only in this way can you know how to adjust your process of knowledge seeking, thus ensuring a sound path of study for yourself. 4. 因果法( cause and effect ) 从属连词：because, since, as, now that, seeing that, for the reason that, considering that, on the grounds that, not that but that 引导结果的副词： therefore, so, thus. hence, accordingly, consequently, as a result (of it), as a consequence 引导原因的介词短语：because of, due to, owing to, thanks to, on account of, as a result of, by virtue of 引出结果的动词（短语）：cause, lead to, result in, bring about, give rise to 引出原因的动词短语：result from, come of, be a result of, be a product of, stem from, derive from, come from，arise from 1) The birth of cars has also brought about some disadvantages along with it. 2) Much of the environmental pollution results from the car exhaust. 3) And even worse, more and more traffic accidents are products of the poor quality of the cars involved or the terrible skills of the car drivers. 4) No wonder some minds can not help sighing with deep emotion, “ The car is one of the worst inventions made by man”. 5. 对比法 (comparison and contrast) On the one hand but on the other, From one side of the coin but from the other side while, whereas, but, yet, however, all the same, nevertheless by contrast, in contrast to that, by comparison, on the contrary, be a contrast to It is true that , but; It goes without saying that, but; There is no denying that, but The Honest Official and the Corrupt Official 1 ) Prior to holding a post, the honest official-to-be concentrates his thoughts on how to live up to the peoples expectations, if promoted to that place.2)But , on the contrary , the corrupt official-to-be busies his brains about how to reap more profit from the position to which he is to climb. 3)During his period of office, the honest official fulfills his duty with all his heart, lest the masses of the people should voice even a trace of complaint; while the corrupt official prides himself on acting willfully leading a luxurious life or helping himself illegally to the public money, with the interests of the people placed behind his mind. 4) Judging from this point of view, our former Premier Zhu Rong-ji is a sharp contrast to those like Chen Xi-tong and Li Zhen. 5)After the honest official retires from his duty and the corrupt one removed from his office, however, there appears another different scene. 6)Those who once hung on the corrupt stay away from him as if a falling tree saw the monkeys scatter, whereas the honest official comes again among the people, more respectable, leaving behind him a legacy of ideas and examples. 议论文写作要求： Para. 1. 主题引入 Para. 2. 主题分析 Para. 3. 主题进一步分析 III. 议论文写作技巧 1. 原因分析类议论文： Para. 1. 主题引入 Para. 2. 原因分析 Para. 3. 进一步分析 III. 议论文写作技巧 Changes in the Private and Public Housing . Paragraph Writing. Paragraph Writing 写作模式（图表作文 ） 1) As can be seen from the graph / table, there have been sharp changes in housing over the past 20 years. 2) To be concrete, the private housing only made up 10 percent of all the housing in 1980 while this ratio rose up to 65 in 2000. 3) These changes are encouraging, but the causes for them are not hard to find out. ( Para. I ) (注：划线部分可被替换) . Paragraph Writing. Paragraph Writing 下一页上一页 4）In the first place, the development of our economy has made great differences to (原因 I) 5) With a steady increase in , more and more people can well afford to (进一步阐述) 6) In the second, peoples desire for has become stronger and stronger. (原因II) 7) When they are no longer , people have every reason to (进一步阐述) 8) In the third, the move to in terms of has served as a good incentive for (原因III) 9) As a result of this, (进一步阐述) ( Para. II ) (注：划线部分可被替换) . Paragraph Writing. Paragraph Writing 下一页上一页 10）The list of causes could go on, but they are already sufficient enough to indicate that their effects on our society as well as on individuals are positive and profound. 11) These changes not only but also 12) With more and more improvement in , I firmly believe, this trend will ( Para. III ) (注：划线部分可被替换) . Paragraph Writing. Paragraph Writing 下一页上一页 Changes in Peoples Housing 1) As can be seen from the graph, there have been great changes in housing over the past 20 years. 2) To be concrete, the private housing only made up 10 percent of all the housing in 1980 while this ratio rose up to 65 in 2000. 3) These changes are encouraging, but the causes for them are not hard to find. ( Para. I ) (注：划线部分可被替换) . Paragraph Writing. Paragraph Writing 下一页上一页 4）In the first place, the development of our economy has made great differences to peoples living conditio