《语言学论文》word版.doc

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IntroductionAs we all know that the world is becoming smaller and smaller, which seems a global village, and the exchange between people is becoming more frequently than ever before. As a result, conflicts appear when people with different background communicate. Therefore, in order to reduce or avoid the conflicts, we had better to know their culture. The more we know it, the better we will understand them. Just as the old saying goes “Do as the Roman do.” Taboo as one of the reflections of culture, is a good way to get close to a nation and its culture. It is a social and common phenomenon both in China and western countries. Because of different background, they are quite various from each other, but they still share some similarities.Knowing the difference and the similarities between China and western countries is an efficient way of English learning and cultural exchange, and can help us well understand their way of thinking and behaving. 1 2. The definition and evolution of taboo.2.1. The definition.In Longman dictionary of English language and culture, the definition of taboo is a strong social or religious custom forbidding a particular act or word, or tech too holy or evil to be touched, named, or used (wei lingcha et al.1791). So taboo is the prohibition or avoidance of language or behaviors which is believed to be harmful to our society or our human beings, or may cause us anxiety, embarrassment or shame. Breaking the taboo is considered to be objectionable and abhorrent by society.2.2. The origin2.2.1. The origin of the wordThe term comes from the Tongan word tabu, meaning set apart or forbidden, and appears in many Polynesian cultures. In those cultures, a tabu (or tapu or kapu) often has specific religious associations. In its current use in Tonga, the word tapu also means "sacred" or "holy", often in the sense of being restricted or protected by custom or law. The phenomenon of taboo includes two aspects: the respected scared can not be used randomly; something looked down can not be touched randomly.2.2.2. Its origin in EnglishThe use of taboo in English dates back to 1777 when English explorer, Captain James Cook, visited Tonga. Describing the cultural practices of the Tongans, he wrote: “Not one of them would sit down, or eat a bit of any thing.” On expressing my surprise at this, they were all taboo, as they said; which word has a very comprehensive meaning; but, in general, signifies that a thing is forbidden. and: “When any thing is forbidden to be eaten, or made use of, they say, that it is taboo.(from )2.2.3. Its origin in ChinaIn China, the word “jinji（禁忌）” early appeared in some books of Han dynasty, such as Book of Han Dynasty，Yiwenzhi. In Chinese history, people lay more attention on the custom of “junjun, chenchen, fufu, zizi(君君，臣臣，父父，子子)” Because of the culture inclination, which manifests that taboo as a social phenomenon has existed before Han dynasty. It is also recorded in the shuo wen jie zi “ji, something hateful.” (Weiwei, 200806, 152)2.3. Its evolution2.3.1. In primitive society.As we all know, in primitive society, people lack enough knowledge to explain some natural phenomena, just like lightning, thunder and earthquake. So they tend to believe there existing nature power 2 or supernatural being. And they believe as long as they cater to their emotion, and do not make them angry they could lead a peaceful life and get rid of every unfortunate. They depend on this supernatural being and wanted to obtain their shelter. Therefore they show great respect to them and avoid doing anything that may cause any slightest blasphemes to them. At that time, people held many blessing ceremony to show their respect and wishes.2.3.2. In medieval timeDuring this time in west, there are many groups of whatever religion group in western countries. Being member of it, people have to obey many rules. People should behave and speak in a proper way according to their religion. So there are many taboos at that time. China is in the state of feudalism at that time. The social class is very rigid, especially the bureaucracy in which every level has its own costume. Besides, woman is in such an inferior state that should obedient to their father, husband or son. They are not encouraged to receive education and doing something considered to be done by man, which is still affecting us now. So taboos are not uncommon in the medieval time.2.3.3. In modern societyIn modern society, with the development of science and technology, people are becoming more and rational. Most of the things can be explained in a scientific way. They will not believe in or rely on the taboos. Therefore, some languished taboos are reduced since people are not superstitious as ever before. But some still exist for people want to convey peoples best wishes and comfort others. However, with the changing of social structure, women take an important role in society which can not be neglected. So the taboos on this aspect are increasing. Besides, due to the globalization trend, communication among different countries are becoming more frequently. Striving to build a harmonious society and a peaceful world have become the dream of people in every quarter of the globe. Therefore, they think more about others and choose some euphemism to avoid hurting others.3. The similarity of taboo between China and westerncountries3.1. Taboos on colorThough in western countries, red is often considered to be a derogatory term, yet it still shares something common with its meaning in China, that is, the word “red” is often related with ceremony or some joyful occasions. One example is the “red-letter day”. It is an important and memorable day. From 15 century on, some festivals or Santas day are marked with red. Another one is the “roll out the red carpet” it 3 means warmest applaud and welcome. When people welcome some distinguished guest, they will lay out the red carpet to show respect and welcome. In China, red is the symbolic of good fortune. In some celebrations as wedding, people will put up the red paper shaped like “喜”, and people are tend to wear red clothes. Therefore, it is improper to wear the red clothes to attend funeral or some occasions like that. Whats more, in China, writing ones name in red is forbidden, because it shows that person past away.Another word share the same meaning in China and western countries is “white”. In western countries, there is a lie called “white lie”, which means it will not do harm to others and it is better to tell the lie than tell the truth. Just like the doctor. In order to lessen the patients tension and comfort them, they will tell the white lies. Here “white” is associated with something purity and innocent. In China, words like “清白 ”“明白”also contend such meaning.3.2. Taboos on religionTaboos are also prevailing in the field of religion. In western countries, people believe in christen, so the name of god “Jehovah” is the greatest taboo. It is set that in whatever case, people are forbidden to use or abuse Gods name. Therefore people often do not use the words, such as god, hell, devil, Christ, damn, but use gosh, golly, for goodness sake or for crying out loud; not use Jesus, but use Gee, Jeepers, Jiminy to replace. People will use deuce, the dickens, Old Nike to replace the devil. While in China, it is quite similar. People will avoid showing disrespect or impoliteness as possible as they can, and avoid mentioning the name of “devil”. Because the people in primitive time or in modern society, they revere the gods and ghosts. They are afraid of being haunted by unfortunate. Besides it is also related to their rooted culture. People in China believe in Buddhism fear telling lies. And Chinese are deeply affected by confusions and Mencius, the theory of who advocate etiquette. It requires people talk proper and do not tell lies or something not to the point. So talking about these related to devil is restricted. In China, there is also a custom of respect animals. “Mouse” “hedgehog” “yellow weasel” “fox” “snake” these words can not be said by the people in opera troupes. Anyone that said these words will suffer the severe punishment.3.3. Taboos on peoples wastingIn most places of China, we can notice that there are many places marked “W.C” as a toilet. While in Britain you will hardly see it. When a mother ask her baby whether he has finished micturition. She will ask “wee, wee” instead of “yes? Yes?”. 1 “Wee” is from the French world “Oui”. Because British think that peoples wasting is ugly, it is rude to mention it with their own language. So they use French instead. 4 Something related to peoples wasting or physiology is also considered to be dirty. People will avoid mentioning it. So when people want to go to the W.C, he will say “pass water, answer natures call” “wash ones hand” “do ones business” and so on. In China, though W.C is common, our Chinese have our own taboos in this field. Chinese advocate etiquette, something unpleasant or dirty also be avoided. So we Chinese will say “上厕所” “去洗手间” “方便” “去一号” to replace some unpleasant words. The most important is it is improper or even forbidden to say such dirty words when people having meal.3.4. Taboos on sexIt is impolite to mention anything about sex in social or formal interactions. In the last century, many literature were banned, such as Ulysses written by James Joyce, Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn written by Henry miller, Lady Chatterleys Lover written by D.H Lawrence. Because people think there are too much sex include in these books which cannot be exposed to the public. Due to the sex liberation in the western countries during the 1960s, the English speaker countries took a more freedom, open attitude towards sex. Therefore the words like “make love” “to have sex with” could be found in written form, but when people talk about something about it, they still use some euphemism.If a woman is pregnant, they will not say it that way. They will say “she is expecting” “she is in a delicate condition”. When a woman was rape, it would be reported that “she was betrayed”. In China, because of the feudal culture and mortality, there are also many taboos in this aspect. Pregnant is expressed like “有喜了” “快当妈妈妈了”. In some translations we also can find examples. “now as she ran up the steps toward sonny a tremendous flash of desire went through her bodythey leaned against each other, out of breath.(Mario Puzo, “the godfather”, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press,1994,page27-28) when translate this part, Chinese translators omitted some parts, considering Chinese peoples taboo on sex. However, taboos in this perspective, are not fixed. It changes with the development and liberation of society. With the time went by, taboos in this aspect will gradually reduce.3.5. Taboos on disease and deathDisease and death are something we cannot avoid. From the time we were born, we are destined to face such things, but people fear to face them, even something closely related to pain, so they choose euphemism to replace. In western, people will use Big C, long disease, or terminal ill to replace cancer; use social disease to replace syphilis. Besides, the word “maimed” is a distressing one, and it is impolite to describe person with such word. People often use “physical disability” or “deformity” to replace it. In China, if one is deaf, will say “ears back(耳背)” “ears a little bad”. In English, it is called “hard of 5 hearing.”Either in China or western, people are restricted from say the word “death”. In English, we say “pass away” “go to the heaven” “go to sleep” “go to see the god” “be in heaven with god”. In Chinese, we say “走了” “没了”. However, in history, people in different social position have different word to express death. For example, we use “驾崩” to describe empires death; use “薨” to describe ducks death; people died young called “夭折”; people died in the war called “牺牲”. All of these words reflect peoples attitudes toward death and the best wishes for the dead and their sympathy for the disabled.3.6Taboos on positionWith the development of society, some social class are raising, they are sensitive about the words show their inferior in the past. Words like “waitress” “actress” “hostess” showing people who take up it is a female are often replaced by “actor” “host” or some neuter gender words. Women are rising as an important role played in the society. It is no doubt that more and more neuter gender words will appear and taboos will increase.In American, people never use “negro”, because it contains something vilification. So they use “blacks” or “colored people”.Another typical taboo word is “poor” neither in China nor in western. People do not want to be called the poor and are not willing to be that. So people use “needy” “disadvantaged”. In China, we say “have some problem in financial” or “低保户”.4. The difference of taboo between China andwestern countries4.1. Taboos on name and appellationIn American, we c