英语论文写作--主体段落写作.ppt

主体段落拓展,主体段落的结构,开头段（文章总论点） 主体段 分论点1+拓展句a+拓展句b+ 分论点2+拓展句c+拓展句d+ 分论点3+拓展句e+拓展句f+ 结尾段,分论点句,1) Incomplete sentences 2)Should not be a question 3) Should not contain phrases like “I think”, “In my opinion”, etc.,扩展句,一个段落是由分论点句和扩展句共同构成的。扩展句是对分论点句的延伸或证明。它们之间的关系构成一个段落好坏的关键。 扩展句和分论点之间至少要注意： 第一，意义的一致性相关性(unity） 第二，逻辑的连贯性(coherence)。,注意,所谓的意义的一致性指的是所有的扩展句都必须是分论点的延伸或者证明，它对主题句能起到支持的作用。否则，这样的扩展句就应当删除掉。 但是只有内容上的一致性还不足以保证能写出一个好的段落。在行文过程中作者还要注意各个句子的正确、紧凑安排，也就是要保证意义的连贯性。,拓展过程中经常出现的问题：,而在意义的连贯上，主要毛病是信笔游走，行文没有规矩，或者没有必要的过渡词。 在内容的一致性上，容易犯的错误主要有： 1）跑题/岔题；2）重复；3）片面；,1、跑题,The report indicates that babies of fathers who smoke are likely to be smaller and weaker than babies of non-smoking fathers. Of course it is already well known that pregnant women who smoke can damage the health of their babies. My sister smoked twenty cigarettes a day when she was expecting her first child. Another worrying point is that smoking just before the start of the pregnancy can affect the baby later. I heard recently that certain foods harm unborn babies.,2、岔题,The main school building contains most of the classrooms. That was our “second home”, the place where my classmates and I worked, studied, and learned for three years. Beyond that is the science building. Thats where we did all our laboratory work for chemistry and physics. On the right side of science building is a library, where there are a large collection of books and periodicals for us to read. Since our teachers were rich in knowledge and taught us very earnestly, we had always done better than students of other schools in joint examinations.,3、重复,Watching TV too much is harmful to your eyes. If you stay in front of TV for too long time your eyes might get hurt. You will be near-sighted. You cannot see clearly when you read. You even cannot see clearly a friend when you meet him in street.,4、片面,Our school is an Army school, so we must obey many rules. Because of this， my house is special in some ways. First, our house is very clean, have no piece of paper on the ground. Everything in my house is neat. Perhaps some other house is dirty, but if my house is dirty we would be punished and forced to clean it.,拓展的主要方法：,一、列举法（Listing） 二、举例法（Exemplification） 三、分类法（Classification） 四、比较对照法（Comparison and Contrast） 五、因果法（Cause and Effect）,列举法（Listing）,也叫枚举法。是一种在主题句中提出论点，然后列举一系列论据或原因对主题进行论证或阐述的方法。列举的顺序可以按照所列各点内容的相对重要性、时间、空间顺序等进行。,列举法作文例子,To get the most out of your textbook you should follow several steps very carefully. First, you should make a preliminary survey of each book to get a general idea of what the book contains. Second, you should read for deeper understanding and formulate questions as you read. Next, make notes of the major point of each chapter. Then, test yourself to be sure that you can answer questions likely to be raised in class or in examinations. Finally, review your notes and reread any parts of the book that are unclear to you.,常用于列举法的过渡连接词,first, second, third, etc.; in the first place, in the second place; first of all, first and foremost; to begin with, to start with; for one thing, for another; also, besides, furthermore, moreover, in addition, what is more; above all; next; beyond that; initially; eventually, last but not least,举例法（Exemplification）,作者通过举出具体事例来阐述、说明主题句的内容。严格地讲，举例法也是列举法的一种，它们的区别在于：列举法侧重罗列事实，所列事实力求全面；而举例法侧重通过举出典型事例来解释作者的观点，且事例可多可少。,举例法作文例子,There are many different forms of exercises to suit different tastes. For example, those who enjoy competitive sports may take up ball games. For another example, if they prefer to exercise alone, they can have a run or take a walk in the morning or in the evening. Besides, people can go swimming in the summer and go skating in the winter. In short, no matter what their interests are, people can always find more than one sport that is suitable to them.,方法1：举例+结果/影响,A sedentary（久坐的，静态的） lifestyle may lead to some physical hazards.（分论点） Evidence shows that in Shanghai over 30 percent teenagers are suffering from obesity or near-sightedness.（举例） Hence, their further studies or future careers might be negatively affected.（结果）,Children exposed to too much screen time would show signs of severe addiction or long-lasting isolation.（分论点） For instance, many TV programs like cartoons or comedies often provide laughter and joy for the kids while most video games portray virtual stories full of adventure and fantasy.（举例） As a result, some teenagers may become unwilling to engage in any healthy outdoor activities.（影响）,方法1：举例+结果/影响,举例法中常见的过渡性词语,for example, for instance, as an example, as an illustration, such as/ such, a case in point is, to illustrate, in particular, specifically, say, next, namely, that is, like, take as an example, etc.,病例分析,Population control is a fundamental policy in China. If the country is overcrowded too much, the government has to spend more money than they can afford to support them; Overcrowded, the country may seek more land to support its people, therefore it may want to have a war against other country.,病例分析,Environment Pollution must be curbed for the benefit of people. I have traveled through half of China from south to north, I found that I can not see a clear river or lake. When I looked up in the sky, I found its color was not blue at all, it is gray! We have lost the beautiful globe for ever, I thought. So I think we have to take some measures to fight pollution.,分类法（Classification）,在阐述某一概念的段落中，常用分类法。通过对概念中所包括的事物进行分门别类地叙述，使读者有更为清晰的认识。,分类法作文例子,Generally, the expression of thoughts and feelings has been in the form of oral speech. When there is a language barrier, communication is accomplished through sign language in which motions stand for letters, words and ideas. Tourists and the people unable to hear or speak have had to resort to this form of expression. Many of these symbols of whole words are very vivid and exact and can be used internationally; spelling, however, cannot.,Body language transmits ideas or thoughts by certain actions, either intentionally or unintentionally. A nod signifies approval, while shaking the head indicates a negative reaction. Other forms of language can be found in signal flags, Morse code and picture signs.,常见的用以分类的词语,动词：sort (into), divide (into), classify, group, fall into, etc. 名词：sorts, classes, groups, categories, types, kinds, aspects, etc.,比较对照法（Comparison and Contrast） 定义,比较对照法由比较和对照两部分组成，但两者往往一起用以阐述两者或者更多事物间的异同，常用于说明文和议论文写作。 比较描述的是所比对象的相同、类似点， 而对照则强调所描述对象之间的不同，甚至相反之处。 常用的比较对照的结构模式有两种，即整块比较法和逐点比较法。 在整块比较法中先集中描述A，再集中描述B。其模式为：A1、 A2、 A3B1、 B2、 B3,Example:,Computers have both favorable and unfavorable aspects. First, computers can calculate. They can make work more efficient for they have a high speed of calculation. Besides, people can communicate with each other by E-mail, which costs people less money and less time. Most important of all, computers create wide communication around the world. People can communicate with each other via the Internet. They can make friends all over the world.,But every coin had two sides. The negative aspects are also apparent. To begin with, since computers can do a lot of work for us, such as calculation, we may rely too much on then and become lazier and lazier. To make matters worse, although it is convenient for people to communicate with each other by E-mail, the original warm relationship may become cold, for people will have fewer opportunities to talk to each other face to face. Worst of all, computers can spread viruses caused by electronic hackers resulting in a lot of important information being lost.,Example:,逐点比较法是A、B双方同时逐点描述，其模式为： A1 B1; A2 B2; A3 B3 例如： A proverb says, “Like father, like son.” But the proverb doesnt seem to fit my grandfather and my father because they have more differences than similarities.,Example:,First, my grandfather is introverted, while my father is extroverted. We can easily read what is on my fathers mind, but it is hard to find out what my grandfather is thinking about. Next, my grandfather is always indifferent to children. He seldom talks with children and the children are somewhat afraid of him. In contrast, my father is very warm-hearted to children. He likes to talk with them, so the children in my family all like him. Finally, my grandfather is obstinate. Once he had made a decision, he never changes it. However, my father, even after he has made a decision, will ask others for opinions. If he thinks the opinions are reasonable, he might change his mind. Although my grandfather and my father resemble each other very much in appearance, they differ in character, thinking and behavior.,常见的比较对照的过渡性词语,常用的表示比较的过渡性词语有： similarly, likewise, correspondingly, in a similar way, in the same way, too, like, resemble, similar to, equal to, equally, important, bothand, the same as,常用的表示对照的过渡性词语有：,on the one hand, on the other hand, on the contrary, in/ by contrast, in contrast to, in sharp contrast, conversely, otherwise, however, nevertheless, but, yet, (al)though, even though, whereas/ while, it is truebut, instead, unlike, rather than, in spite of, contrast with, differ(ent) from, contrary to,因果法 Cause and Effect,因果是写作中常用的一种段落展开方式。作者可以从原因开始得出结果，也可以从结果说起，追究原因。 它常用到的过渡词有： therefore, consequently, accordingly, as a result, hence, so that, thus/ since, because, for, due to, for this reason, owing to,Example:,Funding university students is worth it because for every new dollar that the government invests in higher education, it will receive an estimated net return of three dollars, translating into millions of dollars for the society. This calculation is based on the simple fact that educated workers normally make higher wages than uneducated workers, therefore resulting in increased income in tax revenues.,Example:,Some people think that environmental problems are too big for individuals to deal with. Others, however, think that each individual should take some actions. Discuss both views and give your own opinion.,There are, however, obstacles that stand in the way of individual action towards environmental conservation.,The first obstacle is the lack of professional knowledge needed to cope with serious environmental issues. This is because some of these problems are too big for ordinary people to handle. For instance, issues like soil erosion and salinity require a significant amount of investigation and research.,The first obstacle is the lack of professional knowledge needed to cope with serious environmental issues such as soil erosion and salinity that require a significant amount of investigation and research.,Another obstacle which makes individual action almost impossible is when an environmental emergency or accident happens, e.g. an oil spill near the border line, which would necessitate government intervention or even international coordination.,病例分析,Children are becoming cleverer and cleverer because of television（分论点）. I often find the neighbor children say some adult words which are often heard from TV. I once heard a boy of five say to a girl of about four that it was not easy for me to say that I love you. Children are really growing faster than ever before.,病例分析,In recent years the crime rate is getting higher and higher and the reason, according to me, is that man is getting meaner and meaner. Some people say that man is not as honest as before, and I think that is right. If they are not honest, they will do something wrong, and that would cause the crime rate rise to a high level.,结尾段,结尾段概述 常用的结尾段的表达方法 结尾段常用的的核心句型,结尾段概述,开头和结尾往往是读者注意最多的部分。开头引起读者注意，提出主题；结尾与开头呼应，使读者感觉全文论述完整，圆满结束。从某种意义上来说，结尾更容易给读者留下深刻印象。人们常把好的文章结尾称作是“画龙点睛”，可见结尾部分对整篇文章所起的作用。,常用的结尾段的表达方法,总结归纳 重申主题 预测展望,提出建议 提出问题 引用格言,总结归纳,简要总结归纳文章要点以便深化主题印象。 In conclusion I would like to say that children need to be understood but children also need to understand their parents. It is only when parents and children come to understand each other that we can solve problems effectively and narrow the generation gap. 分析：文章通过in conclusion引出对前面所作论述的归纳，使主题更加明确。,重申主题,再次强调和确定文章开头阐述的中心思想。 如： Admittedly, science has created atomic bombs and produced pervasive pollution. But it has transformed the lives of millions of people. It has multiplied mans energy, hopes, ambitions and understanding. It has elevated and will continue to elevate man intellectually and spiritually. 分析：文章对前文的观点进行了重复，使之更加鲜明。,预测展望,立足当前，放眼未来。 如： So to sum up, we should