HowtoResearch如何开展研究工作.ppt

How to research?,How to choose object: How to obtain reference: How to collect data: How to analyze the data: How to interpret the data: How to conclude: How to write bibliography:,How to choose object,choose the topic from your interests, experience, readings, topical issues and etc. specify the research question: put the objective into a concrete proposition. significant, feasible, neither broad nor narrow,Possible topics,On-campus topics Opinions of both students and staff about the cafeteria/ library etc. service Opinions and suggestions on courses offered in our department and college Rate of successful campus love that results in marriage Qualities of a most attractive college student ,Off-campus topics Demand for English tutors in society What qualities are attractive to potential employers? Are interns welcomed? ,Definition of Questionnaire,The questionnaire is a form that consists of questions on a topic or group of topics designed to be answered by a number of people. Have you ever been asked to answer a questionnaire? What was it about?,Purpose,To gather information, e.g., comments or opinions on the service or products of a company. The information gathered will be transformed into statistical information, graphs and charts. After the careful analysis, the results will become the basis of a report or policy-making.,Layout of Questionnaire,Title Introduction Questions Close Footnote,Process of writing questionnaires,Identify the goal(s) of the Q Consider the audience, the one who needs the info., and how info. will be most effectively presented select the reliable respondents, representative sample of population Make a rough list of all info. required Structure and word the questions logically and appropriately Type out the form neatly Make any necessary amendments. Always consider the layout of your questionnaire. You want to make it attractive, easy to understand and easy to complete.,Title,Help readers see what the questionnaires are about. Questionnaires on the TV Show Survey on Hotel Service Quality,Introduction,Show the reason to fill in the questionnaire. We are currently planning to buy some new furniture for the training school. Could you please give me your opinions or suggestions by answering the following questions? The results of the questionnaires will be presented to the board for further discussion. Thanks for cooperation.,Ask Questions,questionnaire questions V. internal questions The questions you ask yourself are usually unsuitable for asking respondents directly. This is a problem with a lot of questionnaires written by beginners. The overriding consideration in questionnaire design is to make sure your questions can accurately tell you what you want to learn.,Open v. Closed Closed format questions usually take the form of a multiple-choice question. They are easy for the respondent. Open format questions are those that ask for unprompted opinions. In other words, there are no predetermined set of responses. What different purposes do these two kinds of questions serve?,Advantages of each format,Closed format Easy for respondents Easy to calculate percentages Save time and money Open format Invite subjective data Invite wider response Truly reflect the opinions of respondents Proper when the range of responses is not tightly defined.,Disadvantages of Open format: 1. There is no way to automatically tabulate or perform statistical analysis on them. This is obviously more costly in both time and money. 2. Open format questions require more thought and time on the part of the respondent.,3. They are also open to the influence of the reader, for no two people will interpret an answer in precisely the same way. This conflict can be eliminated by using a single reader (or a single researcher), but a large number of responses can make this impossible.,Multiple choice questions: About how many days a week do you go out on business?_ A. 1 day B. 2 days C. 3 days,Yes or No questions Do you own a color TV? Y/N Are you going to register for the business member this year? Y/N,Rating or preference questions How do you rate this car: excellent good fair poor,I am a trend-setter: Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree 1 2 3 4 5,Tips on scale question: Many surveys use a ten-point scale, but there is considerable evidence to suggest that anything over a five point scale is irrelevant. Another issue on which researchers differ is whether to use a scale with an odd or even number of points. Some like to force people to give an answer that is clearly positive or negative, even; Others feel it is important to offer a neutral, middle option, odd.,List questions Which of the following have you attended in the past six months? (Check all that apply) Art exhibition Ballet Cinema Opera Play Other performance (please specify):,Questions must be clear, succinct and unambiguous. Questions must be relevant to goal Carefully select the respondents. Make sure that they are reliable and representative sample of population,Avoid loaded questions, e.g., “Why do people think that this brand is popular?” Avoid potentially biased questions, e.g., “Dont you think?”,Formulate questions whose answers can be readily computed Ask open questions as well as closed questions Give all the possible choices. Where it is feasible, provide some space for the reader to provide his answer.,Sequence of questions,At the beginning, to have some questions that are both interesting and easy to answer. As rapport gradually builds up between interviewer and interviewee, more difficult and personal questions can be asked. In a good questionnaire, the questions will seem to flow in a logical order.,The questions should move gradually from the general to the specific; this is called funnelling. The more sensitive a question, the closer it should be to the end of the questionnaire. At the end of a questionnaire, we normally include a very general open-ended question.,Qualities of a Good Question,1. Evokes the truth. Questions must be non-threatening. 2. Asks for an answer on only one dimension. “Do you like the texture and flavor of the snack?“,3. Can accommodate all possible answers. For example, consider the question: What brand of computer do you own? _ A. IBM B. Apple 4. Has mutually exclusive options. An obvious example is: Where did you grow up? _ A. country B. farm C. city,5. Produce variability of responses. What do you think about your looks? _ A. Its the worst B. Its somewhere between the worst and best C. Its the best Since almost all responses would be choice B, very little information is learned. Design your questions so they are sensitive to differences between respondents. As another example: Are you against murdering? (circle: Yes or No) Again, there would be very little variability in responses and wed be left wondering why we asked the question in the first place.,6. Follows comfortably from the previous question. Transitions between questions should be smooth. 7. Does not presuppose a certain state of affairs. Are you satisfied with your current auto insurance? (Yes or No) 8. Does not imply a desired answer. Dont you think the Congress is spending too much money?,9. Does not use emotionally loaded or vaguely defined words. Quantifying adjectives (e.g., most, least, majority) mean different things to different people. 10. Do not use unfamiliar words or abbreviations. 11. Do not depend on responses to previous questions. An example of branching is: 1. Do you currently have a life insurance policy ? 2. How much is your annual life insurance premium ? _,12. Do not ask the respondent to order or rank a series of more than five items. This becomes increasingly difficult as the number of items increases, and the answers become less reliable.,13. Non-specific questions Do you like orange juice? Do I like what? Taste, texture, nutritional content, Vitamin C, the current price? 14. Non-directed questions What suggestions do you have for improving tomato juice? The respondent may offer suggestions about texture, the type of can or bottle, mixing juices, or something related to use as a mixer or in recipes. It gives respondents excessive latitude.,15. Questions on future intentions Making predictions is difficult, especially when they are about the future. Predictions are rarely accurate more than a few weeks or in some case months ahead. 16. Prestige Bias Prestige bias is the tendency for respondents to answer in a way that make them feel better. People may not lie directly, but may try to put a better light on themselves. For example: Will you smoke in public?,17. Be aware of cultural and educational factors. Respondents of low educational level have a strong tendency to exaggerate answers. 18. Researchers may be perceived as being government agents, with the power to punish or reward according to the answer given. Accordingly they often give “correct“ answers rather than what they really believe.,Language: Use simple language Too complex: “How ingenuous are you when the instructor asks if you have understood material presented during a lecture?“ Better: “How honest are you when the instructor asks if you have understood material presented during a lecture?“,Write clearly Unclear: “How would you rate your participation during class?“ Clearer: “ Compared to others in the course, how often do you ask questions during lectures?“,Avoid universal words and double negatives Because respondents may avoid choosing extremes, do not use universal words such as “all,“ “always,“ “none,“ and “never“. Universals: “I always study hard for exams.“ Better: “I study hard for exams.“ It is also best to avoid words such as “only“, “just“, and “merely“, which may lead respondents to answer in a particular way and bias the results.,Negatively worded questions are often confusing because responding “no“ creates a double negative. Negatively worded: “Should the instructor not schedule an exam the same week a paper is due?“ Better: “Should the instructor schedule an exam the same week a paper is due?“ Write short questions Questions should be short and simple, rarely exceeding 20 words.,Close & Footnote,Close: Give thanks and good wishes. Thank you very much! Footnote: necessary information of the respondent or designer. Name: _ Tel: _ Address: _ Date:_,How to analyze the data (with Excel),A. To generate diagrams table: numeric value pie chart: proportion line graph: trend; contrast; correlation bar graph: contrast tree diagram: process, organization,Table,Function: store the data look up the data introduction to data (in the report) Requirement: classified into dimensions numerical value,Pie chart,Function: Proportion between variables contrast in proportion,Single Line graph,Function: Trend up and down maximum & minimum correlation: positive negative non-correlation,positive,Negative,Non-correlation,Multi-line graph,Function: trend maximum & minimum up and down correlation Contrast,bar graph,Function: Contrast between variables maximum & minimum,Tree diagram,Function: sequence, succession, classification, organization, etc.,central tendency (集中): average, median(中数), mode(众数), etc. dispersion (离中): range(两极差), mean average(平均差), variance(方差), etc.,B. To take statistics,Average,class 1 class 2,Median,Class1: 84 Class 2: 89 Class 2 class 1,Mode,I am a trend-setter: Strongly disagree Strongly agree 1 2 3 4 5,Range,Economic situation: Group 1 group 2,So, different diagrams and statistic methods reflect different aspects of the object, we can make full use of the data by analyzing it by various means.,How to interpret the data,Cause & effect Trend Suggestion,Organization of research,Research on X 1. Introduction a. the reason/significance of your research b. the objectives: the concrete questions to be answered by this research. e.g. In this research, we are g