文章类型(prosetypes).ppt

文章类型（prose types）,描写文(description) 记叙文(narration) 说明文(exposition) 议论文(argumentation),描写文(description) 1,Description is the art of translating perceptions into words. Description conveys the sensations, emotions and impressions that affect a writer experiencing a person, place, object or idea. Two basic types: objective and impressionistic Organization: description is usually organized and developed by space order. 1) objective description an objective point of view a. a factual account, like a black and white photograph; an objective and impersonal picture. b. purpose: to inform a reader who has not been able to see with his own eyes; c. selecting factual details and using denotative and concrete words; d. spatial order,描写文(description) 2,2) impressionistic description a subjective point of view a. focusing upon the mood or feeling the object evokes in the observer; b. purpose: to arouse emotion; to make us feel more than to make us see; to share with the reader a single dominant impression; the communication of feeling is the primary purpose. c. language: selecting words rich in connotative meaning and appealing strongly to the senses; clever use of figures of speech. d. method: selecting only those details which can best convey the dominant impression or feeling. e. pattern: arranging the details by following the pattern of deduction or induction,类型,记叙文(narration),Narration is the telling of a story. It usually has a beginning, a middle and an end. Basic factors: plot (reason, development, climax, conclusion/ demouement), characters (hero/protagonist and the enemy/ antagonist), time, place, etc. Organization: chronological order (the actions/ incidents are presented in order of their occurrence, following the natural time sequence of the happenings ); Focus: plot, character, theme or atmosphere. Point of View: the first person or the third person,类型,说明文(exposition) 1,Exposition means “to put forth, expound”. Exposition is the most common kind of writing. Purpose: to inform or explain Tone: objective Organization: thesis, topic sentences 5. Exposition, narration,and description,Methods: comparison, contrast, analogy, (identification, analysis,) illustration/examples, definition, classification, cause and effect (causation), etc. ,类型,Exposition, Narration,and Description,描写文主要写的是外观和情感，叙述文写的是事件和经历。而说明文所涉及的主要是过程和关系。人们描述某事物的外观时， 要用描写文； 但是要讲解此物是如何制作的， 如何使用， 可以如何变化时， 就要用说明文了。记叙文谈论一历史事件时， 叙述事件本身， 事件发生的时间、地点以及与事件有关的人物。说明文讨论的则是事件发生的原因及后果，其性质和历史意义。,Commonly Used Writing Methods (1),1. Comparison and Contrast (比较与对比说明文) 1) 比较论述事物如何相似，对比说明事物如何不同。 2) 写比较与对比说明文时，作者的目的不外乎以下三个： A. 通过和熟悉的事物比较来提供有关不熟悉事物的信息； B. 通过比较表明甲优于乙； C. 向读者表明两个事物的异同以便读者理解并对二者作出评价。 3) 写比较与对比说明文时，应牢记以下原则： A. 比较或对比只能在同类的 (通常是两个) 事物之间进行。 B. 比较与对比说明文有两种模式：按照比较体 (即比较对象) 展开或按照比 较项目 (即比较内容) 展开。 C. 比较、对比的事物各自所占的篇幅应大致相同，比较、对比的项目也应 一致，同时着墨也相等。(手册P189) D. 比较和对比必须以有关的具体实例为依据。 E. 比较、对比说明文通过 指出两者的异同来阐明具体问题。,exposition 1,Comparison and Contrast (1),两种模式（1）： 按照比较体 (即比较对象) 展开或按照比较项目 (即比较内容) 展开。 按照比较对象展开时，作者先讨论甲的各个方面，然后再讨论乙的各个方面 (即整体比较法)。 例如： Thesis statement: X is a better school than Y. I. X A. Student body B. Teaching staff C. Library and other facilities D. Campus II. Y A. Student body B. Teaching staff C. Library and other facilities D. Campus,The method of development is also called simultaneous comparison. It occurs when the writer states the points of similarity together. This type of development is used when you dont want to discuss the likeness in depth; you therefore go over them in compact form.,Simultaneous comparison (整体比较法) 范文,Although Ulysses S. Grant and Robert E. Lee were fierce adversaries during the Civil War, their lives, both military and nonmilitary, had a great deal in common. Grant descended from a family whose members participated in the American Revolution. He received his commission of second lieutenant from West Point and served in the Spanish-American War. He was later summoned by President Lincoln to assume command of the Union Forces during the Civil War. After the Civil War, Grant suffered financial problems and was forced to declare bankruptcy. Lee also descended from family which engaged in the American Revolution. He, too, received his commission from West Point and later fought in Mexico during the Spanish-American War. His fame as a military strategist during the Civil War, when he was the commander of the Confederate armies, is well known. Although it is not always pointed out by historians, he, like Grant, had financial difficulties after the Civil War and was compelled to declare bankruptcy. By securing a post as president of Washington College, he was able to avoid additional poverty. Gordon Sacris,Comparison and Contrast (2),两种模式（2）： 2. 按照比较项目展开时，作者分项论述甲、乙 (交替比较法)： Thesis statement: X is a better school than Y. I. Student body A. X B. Y II. Teaching staff A. X B. Y III. Library and other facilities A. X B. Y IV. Campus A. X B. Y,The method of development is also called alternating comparison. It is achieved first by identifying a characteristic of one item in the comparison and following it immediately with a similar characteristic in the other item. This type of comparison is built up in layers, from first one subject, then the other. Alternating comparison is commonly used to stress points of similarity.,Alternating contrast (交替对比法) 范文,The television western of several years ago differs greatly from the western of today. Ten years ago, for example, the swindler or bank robber in a western could be identified not by the crimes he committed so much as by the color of the clothing he wore which was black. Today the television western reveals the villain by mannerisms and personality. At one time, every western had a superhuman, invincible “good guy” with whom the viewers could identify because he too lived out on the farm. Currently, the central figures of the western are average people who may live on a middleclass street in any part of the country. They are characters like the bus drivers, mailclerks and accountants who live next door to you in suburbia. At night they come in off the horses to ride the television range. They become persons who respect others, drink and smoke only just a bit, and are able not only to outshoot the “bad guy”, but also to outsmart him with good common sense. Ron Sengal,Commonly Used Writing Methods (2),2. Analogy (类比说明文) 类比是一种特殊的比较方法。类比指出的不是同类的而是不同类的两个事物的 相似之处。如把人生比作旅程， 是用类比来阐明并加深读者对人生的理解。类比与比较不同， 并不使用相等的篇幅讨论甲和乙，而是用甲来阐明乙。 使用类比展开法应注意以下指导原则： 1） 文章中的两个事物不属于同类。 2） 类比说明文中的甲事物仅仅用于 阐明乙事物。 3） 阐明乙事物的甲事物必须是读者熟悉的，这样才有助于读者理解乙事 物。 4）类比只用来说明一个问题的某个方面。 5） 类比只提出新的看法或观察问题的新角度，不能用来证明任何问题。,Exposition 1,Analogy,Analogy is used to explain the unfamiliar in terms of the familiar. It is used to explain an unfamiliar idea or describe an unfamiliar thing in point-by point comparison with something the reader is familiar with. In some ways, of course, analogies are simple similes or metaphors that have been stretched out.,Analogy 范文,Electricity is transferred from one place to another in much the same manner as water. A water pipe performs the same function as a length of wire. The pipe carries water to its point of use in the same manner as wire carries electricity to its point of use. A blown fuse results from the same thing as a burst water pipe. Both give out due to extreme pressure applied to the walls of the carrier. A switch is to electricity what a faucet is to water. Both of them control the flow of the substance. Since electricity and water have some common properties, understanding the job of the plumber will help under- standing the work of the electrician. John Brower,Commonly Used Writing Methods (3),3. Illustration/examples (举例说明文) 举例说明文使用例子阐明观点。这是最常见，往往也是最有效的阐释模式。好的例子有助于作者清楚地表达思想，从而避免泛泛而谈。实例能使抽象的问题具体化，这样不但能引起读者的兴趣，还可以增强文章的说服力。 文章有时仅使用举例展开法，但通常是将举例展开法和其他的展开法，如分解、分类法， 比较、对比法和定义法等等结合使用。 一篇好的举例说明文应该做到： 1） 精心地挑选一些具体、典型、有趣、与题目密切相关的例子，例子可以是作者的亲身经历，也可以来自可靠的第二手资料。 2） 妥贴地编排例子；类似的，相关的例子应归在一起，并按照逐步推高潮的递进顺序排列。,Illustration/examples (范文),A recent investigation by scientists at the U.S. Geological Survey shows that strange animal behavior might help predict future earthquakes. Investigators found such occurrences in a ten-kilometer radius of the epicenter of a fairly recent quake. Some birds screeched and flew about wildly; dogs yelped and ran around uncontrollable. Scientists believe that animals can perceive these environmental changes as early as several days before the mishap. In 1976 after observing animal behavior, the Chinese were able to predict a devastating quake. Although hundreds of thousands of people were killed, the government was able to evacuate millions of other people and thus keep the death toll at a lower level.,Exposition 1,Commonly Used Writing Methods (4),4. Definition (定义说明文) 1) 使用有多种意义和涵义的词或术语时，有必要对其下定义。 2) 定义主要分两种 逻辑或正式的定义以及扩展或非正式的定义。 逻辑或正式的定义指词典上的定义。这种严格、固定的定义常用来阐明具体的或没有争议的词或术语。下定义时有可能提供一个同义词，比如，电脑：电子计算机。但多数情况下，此类定义都包括词或术语、类别和差异三个部分。下定义时，首先要界定说明对象的类别，然后指出它与同类的区别。 逻辑定义的使用范围有限。讨论理想、概念或情感时，只有用扩展或非正式的定义才能做出令人满意的解释。扩展或非正式的定义也利用类别和差异来说明，但与逻辑定义不同的是，此类定义不是严格、固定的，而是扩展的。 3) 给一个词语或概念下定义时要注意以下几点： *要避免循环定义。循环定义仅是一种简单的重复，达不到阐明内涵的目的。 *在给意思抽象的词语或概念下定义时，要避免仅列出一系列同义词的做法。 *要避免带有个人成见的定义。定义应该是客观的，贴近实际情况的，不应含有感情色 彩。,Commonly Used Writing Methods (4) (continued),4) 定义说明文中使用的大多是扩展或非正式的定义。写这种说明文时，应牢记以下几点： * 定义说明文讨论抽象词语，如自由、平等、美、爱情和社会主义等，不同的人往往对这些抽象词语的意义，尤其对它们的涵义，有不同的认识。 * 定义说明文详尽地、往往是含蓄地回答“ 是什么”的问题。定义说明文指出定义对象的实质和特有属性，阐明它与其他同类如何不同，往往还附加说明为什么有必要了解定义对象。定义说明文通常都表明一定的观点和态度，正因为如此，文章才生动活泼，读起来比词典更有趣，更能发人深省。 * 定义说明文没有固定的模式。有的使用描写文或其他说明文的模式，不过大多数是结合使用几种说明文模式。 * 定义说明文可用演绎法或归纳法展开。使用演绎法的文章以定义开篇，后面选用其他说明文模式；使用归纳法的文章先运用其他展开法，最后才给出定义。文章的结尾部分往往用总结或强调基本要点的办法重新陈述定义。,Definition (定义说明文) 范文,The Red, Yellow, and White Roads On reading the title, you may feel quite puzzled. “What does it mean?” you may ask. To be frank with you, when a friend used this phrase, I was also at a loss what to make of it until she explained it to me. “The red, yellow, and white roads” is a popular phrase among senior students in Chinese colleges. In their last year in college, students begin to consider their future jobs. It is time for them to decide whether they will be officials, businessmen, or intellectuals. Of course, different people make different choices. These choices, by and large, are generalized as the “red”, “yellow”, and “white” roads.,The Red, Yellow, and White Roads (continued),The red road is considered to be the most promising one. Red in China is the color which has some connection with communism. The one who chooses to follow this road will, first of all, join the Communist Party. A diploma and a party card will make it much easier for him than one without the two things to be promoted, first as section chief, and then as head of a department. Gradually, he will climb up the social ladder. The red road seems to provide a good chance for one to achieve his political goal. The second one is the yellow road. Yellow may remind us of gold. To be well-to-do is the goal. How does one achieve it? Positions in joint ventures run by China and some foreign countries are the most,The Red, Yellow, and White Roads (continued),desirable for people who have chosen this road. Though they may have to work hard, they get good pay. Aside from that, those graduates who know foreign languages may have more opportunities to go abroad than people working elsewhere. On the whole, this is a profitable road. Lastly comes the white road. The color is not so delightful as the first two. People who choose this road will work very hard so as to become graduate students, and to be successful in the world of knowledge. It is an arduous road without much concrete and immediate benefit. Just like the color itself, the road is very clean and pure.,The Red, Yellow, and White Roads (continued),The three roads reflect some characteristics of our society and show, in a way, what young people are thinking and dreaming of. It is good to know that young people are very practical now. But it is also rather disappointing to find that knowledge which is vital to our modernization is placed last. People are so obsessed by power and money that knowledge is devaluated.,Exposition 1,Commonly Used Writing Methods (5),5. Classification (分类说明文) 分类就是根据事物的特点分别归类。我们对各种人或事物，根据他 (它)们的共性和差别，进行分类。 分类用于若干具有某些特性的事物，目的在于将这些事物按照一定的标准组合。如大学的课程可分为“选修”课和“必修”课，或是“用汉语讲授”和“用外语讲授”的课程。同一组事物可按不同原则分类。 使用分类方法展开段落的关键在于把握好类别的对应性。不能把不同类别的事物交错在一起。例如，我们可以把各种体育活动分成田径、游泳、球类、体操等几大类，但是如果把它们分成跳高、球类、跑步、体操和自由泳等几类，我们就破坏了事物类别的平行性。因为，在这个例子里，球类和体操本身是两大类别，而跳高、跑步、自由泳是别的大类里的具体项目，彼此不能混为一谈。 在写此类说明文时，应注意以下几点： 1）选择符合作者意图的分类原则。事物应按照作者的目的与着眼点来分类。所 选的分类原则要有意义，并能引起读者的兴趣。 2）使用原则要贯彻始终，同时要避免重叠现象。 3） 分类时很难，甚至不可能，往往也不必做到一一列举、毫无遗漏。这时可以用“和其他 ”或“等等”这一类词来表明以上的罗列并不完全。,Classification (分类说明文),To write an effective paragraph of classification, the writer can use the following procedure: Clearly, and as precisely as necessary, identify the term being classified. When necessary, define it in words the reader can understand. State or imply clearly the standards on which the classification is to be made. Sometimes the name of the class or classes in which the item is placed suggests the basis or standard for the classification. Classifying birds as game birds clearly specifies them as among those which can be hunted and eaten by humans. Identify the names of the classes into which the items being classified belong. Finally, discuss each of the classes, limiting the discussion to the standards on which the classification is based.,Classification (分类说明文) 范文,Every educated person has at least two ways of speaking his mother tongue. The first is that which he employs in his family, among his familiar friends, and on ordinary occasions. The second is that which he uses in discoursing on more complicated subjects, and in addressing persons with whom he is less intimately acquainted. It is, in short, the language which he employs when he is “on his “dignity,” as he puts on evening dress when he is going to dine. J. B. Greenough and G. L. Kittredge,Exposition 1,Commonly Used Writing Methods (6),6. Cause and effect (原因和结果) 因果说明文旨在表明事物发生的原因和结果。它阐明的也可能是二者之一： 或是原因，或是结果。此类说明文实际上是分析因果关系。 分析因果时，要回答两个问题： 1） 事情发生的原因是什么？ 2） 如果发生某事，其后果如何？ 回答第一个问题时，要从结果追溯到原因；回答第二个问题时，要从原因探 索结果。分析原因和结果，要力求理由充足，逻辑性强。 探讨原因的说明文在引论部分简短地交代结果，文章的主体完全用来分析原 因，通常每一个原因都使用一个段落来分析。讨论结果的说明文程序恰恰相反。 引论部分交代原因，其余部分论述结果。 有时，说明文可能既涉及原因，又涉及结果：比如在分析中国的独生子女政 策时，作者一开头可能先谈原因，解释为什么要采取这一政策，然后再讨论这一 政策带来的后果。 分析原因和结果是个复杂的过程。写因果说明文时，切记以下几点： 1）分析原因时，切不可过于简单化。,6. Cause and effect (continued),2）尤其要注意不要犯逻辑错误。例如：一种传染病在某某出任卫生部长后爆发，就把传染病爆发说成是某某当了部长的缘故。不能因为乙发生在甲之后，就断定甲是导致乙的原因。 3）要区分直接原因与间接原因、直接后果与间接后果以及主要原因与次要原因、主要结果与次要结果。 某一结果可能是多种原因造成的，某一原因同样也可能导致多种结果，讨论原因和结果的说明文不可不加区别地对待所有的原因和结果，而应使用更多的篇幅讨论主要的原因和结果。 4）不要遗漏一系列原因和结果中的任何一个环节。 某一结果往往是由一系列原因造成的，这些原因一环套一环。必须讲清其中的每一个环节才能令读者信服。这如同医生只对病人的家属说，病人是死于感冒，却没有讲清感冒导致肺炎，肺炎又对病人衰弱的心脏产生致命的影响。 5）言语要客观，分析要有根据，事实要确凿。 中国有句古话：“仁者见仁，智者见智。” 不同的人，由于看问题的角度不同，观点很可能也不同。认真、客观地审查、考虑他人得出的结论总是有益的，至少有助于避免片面性。,Cause and effect (continued),causal analysis or causation Everything that exists and every event that takes place has a cause, and most things produce effects or results. In writing, causation is the search for and explanation of causes and effects. In causation, the fundamental logical relationship is that one thing happened or will happen because of or as a result of another; the problem is to discover the right causes and the right effects. Causation is often used to explain an investigation conducted to find the causes of a problem and solutions for it. Dangers in the search for causes and results: 1) over-simplification; 2) false cause.,Cause and effect (continued),One of the biggest dangers in the search for causes and results is over- simplification. Particularly with very complex subjects, it is tempting to pin everything on a single cause or effect when actually there are many factors at work. Another danger in the search for causes is the fallacy known as false cause. It is often easy to assume that because one thing happened shortly before or after another, one caused the other, when actually there may be no relation between the two. Cause and effect (范文) Passengers who prefer jet airliners frequently ask why propeller planes service popular ski resorts. The reason is simple: greater efficiency. Jet airplanes lose some engine efficiency when operating from high-altitude airports where air density is much less than it is at low-altitude fi