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文 献 资 料专 业 机械设计制造及其自动化 学 生 姓 名 张岳军 班 级 BMZ机制031 学 号 0361440102 指 导 教 师 刘必荣 .文 献 资 料1 咸斌. 箱体类零件钻镗组合机床夹具CAD系统J. 工具技术 , 2005,(11) 2 李春梅 , 崔凤奎. 组合机床CAD系统J. 新技术新工艺 , 2004,(10) 3 李春梅, 崔凤奎. 组合机床模块化设计CAD系统J. 机械工人.冷加工 , 2005,(04) 4 张满囤, 曹新国, 林建平. 组合机床总体方案CAD系统的设计与实现J. 河北工业大学学报 , 1999,(04) 5 吴树青. 夹具设计中的排屑问题J. 组合机床与自动化加工技术 , 1988,(06) 6 李春梅, 崔凤奎. 组合机床模块化设计CAD系统J. 河南科技大学学报(自然科学版) , 2004,(05) 7 佟璞玮. 战略调整中的我国组合机床行业J. 世界制造技术与装备市场 , 1996,(02) 8 潘贵善. 找准位置突出重点发展特色振兴行业浅谈“九五”组合机床行业发展指导方针J. 组合机床与自动化加工技术 , 1996,(01) 9 裘愉. 从几个侧面看组合机床的发展动向J. 组合机床与自动化加工技术 , 1994,(11) 10 罗文辉. 组合机床在中小型工厂的应用J. 组合机床与自动化加工技术 , 1992,(12) 图2 输入字符包含非法字符图1 输入字符超过规定长度onblur =“check-num (document. form1. tel. value ,form1.tel)” E- mail : 运行以上源代码,若在 “登陆用户名” 输入框中输入超过规定字符长度的数据或输入了非法字符,程序将给出错误信息提示(见图1和图2)。4 结语表单数据实时校验方法可行性强,为企业动态网站的使用带来了便捷,保证了企业网站的安全运行。随着企业信息化的不断发展,企业动态网站的应用将深入到企业管理的各个层面,用户需求将发生巨大的变化,这些都将促使企业信息工作者不断完善和开发更加适用的应用程序。第一作者:孔 莉,高级工程师,成都工具研究所,610051成都市收稿日期:2005年3月箱体类零件钻镗组合机床夹具CAD系统咸 斌盐城工学院摘 要:针对箱体类零件钻镗组合机床夹具设计中存在的大量标准件和典型结构提出基于被加工件三维模型的箱体类组合机床夹具设计方法,研究了夹具的定位设计、 夹紧设计和导向设计。关键词:组合机床, 钻镗加工, 夹具设计,CAD系统CAD System of Fixture in Combined Machine of Turning and DrillingXian BinAbstract : Based on the large amount of standard units and prototypes in fixture design of combined machine of drilling andturning , the fixture design method based on 3D model of workpieces is presented , and the design methods of positioning , clamp2ing , and guiding device are researched.Keywords :combined machine ,drilling and turning ,fixture design ,CAD system1 引言箱体类零件是机械、 汽车、 家电、 航空、 纺织、 石化等领域产品结构的主体,其加工分为外表面铣削和孔系钻、 镗加工。在用组合机床进行箱体类零件的大批量加工时,其孔系加工质量主要由夹具保证12,因此夹具设计是保证加工精度的重要环节。本文研究和分析了箱体类零件钻镗加工用组合机床夹具的结构及功能,并提出基于被加工件三维模型的箱体类组合机床夹具设计方法。2 箱体类钻镗组合机床夹具设计分析211 夹具结构45工 具 技 术 1994-2007 China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House. All rights reserved. 11 工件导入装置21 定位装置31 工件41 导向装置51 夹紧装置图1 某柴油机机体夹具图1为三面钻镗组合机床上所使用的加工某柴油机机体夹具的爆炸视图。工件导入装置1由导轨、 导轮和支撑装置组成;定位装置2由处于工件底面的两行支承块、 后面的侧支承块和辅助定位装置组成;3为工件;4为刀具导向装置(图中仅指出左面的导向装置,实际上右面、 后面也有导向装置,根据工件的具体情况而定) ;5为液压夹紧装置(亦可根据要求的不同,选用气动夹紧装置)。212 夹具设计分析夹具结构设计过程为: 确定加工设备(立式或卧式) ; 根据给定工序图确定的定位方案进行定位设计,包括选择定位件,并设计相应结构; 导向设计,具体内容为确定导向装置与被加工件间的位置关系、 选择或设计导向部件、 设计导向板等; 根据工序图确定的夹紧方案,确定夹具力作用位置,并选择夹紧件、 设计相应夹紧机构、 选择匹配动力装置; 据加工中工件的受力特点,合理地确定辅助支承装置; 设计夹具体; 设计工件的导入装置; 其它结构的设计。不同箱体类零件的加工对应不同的夹具,但其中存在大量的典型结构和通用件、 标准件。典型结构是指一组零件组合在一起、 完成特定功能的子装配体,如钻削中用到的快换钻套与衬套及钻套固定螺钉的组合、 镗削中卧轴镗孔用滑动导套的组合等。又如箱体零件在夹具中的定位方式一般为一面两销或三个平面(六点定位) ,箱体类零件组合夹具的夹具体一般都采用支架式、 为提高工件效率并夹紧工件一般采用液压夹紧等。这些结构都可采用标准化处理,将这些结构做成参数化的典型结构库,在设计中进行调用,避免重复劳动,提高设计效率。由于工件形状、 尺寸不同,夹具结构会发生相应变化,如何有效地快速响应工件变化是箱体类零件组合机床夹具CAD的一个难题。本文针对不同的结构组成采用不同的设计方法予以处理。3箱体类零件组合机床夹具设计系统研究311 定位方案设计箱体类零件组合机床的定位方案一般有一面两销定位和三平面定位两种34。一面两销定位:其中一面为支承面,由于加工孔系是决定箱体类零件精度的关键加工工序,之前对其所用定位面已进行过精加工,故支承件一般选取与工件接触面较大的支承板;如考虑工件的导入,则支承板与导向板配合使用,或合二为一。支承板与导向板在夹具体中的布局有其典型格式,可针对工件定位面的大小,总结支承件的选择条件,利用条件语句实现支承件的选择。而两销的选择则完全由工件中定位孔的尺寸来确定。由于组合机床是高效的加工设备,故对一般工件的装卸速度要求较高,在一面两销定位方式中一般采用插拔销机构,以适应快速装卸要求。采用三平面定位时,支承件的选择方法与一面两销定位相同。而其它定位件及相应机构的选择则有所不同:一般用侧导板来限制两个自由度,用后定位板(或圆柱销)来限制剩下的一个自由度。312 夹紧方案设计钻、 镗组合机床夹具中,夹紧机构一般为气动或液压机构,易于实现自动控制,且形式比较简单,易于设计。在组合机床夹具CAD系统中,不仅要考虑把使用液压夹紧、 气动夹紧的典型结构纳入其中,使其能被方便地调用,并针对不同的工件根据设计需要进行定位、 定向。还应考虑把相关的液压气动装置的设计计算、 相关标准件的选用、 与夹具体的联接及其它相关验算纳入其中,根据加工工艺的要求,辅助进行相关的设计估算。313 导向机构设计孔对于基准的定位精度由定位方案来保证,而孔系中孔间位置关系则由导向机构来保证,其设计随被加工孔系的变化而变化。具体的导向结构是一块包容了针对不同孔加工用的导向套或镗套的模板(其中导向套或镗套应可更换)。在夹具CAD系统中,应能针对工件的孔系自动生成这样的装置和相应的模板,同时能尽量自动从标准件库中选择标准的导向套和衬套、 避免过多的人工调整。552005年第39卷 11 1994-2007 China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House. All rights reserved. 314 工件导入、 导出机构设计工件的导入、 导出机构是为了便于工件的装入、粗限位、 取出以及大卧式组合机床中承载过重、 过大的工件质量而设计的。工件的导入、 导出机构的设计要根据工件质量、 生产率要求、 加工自动化程度和工件具体形态确定。如工件较轻、 生产率要求较低、加工自动化程度要求不高,也可采用人工方式装卸工件,只需简易的导入、 导出机构。315 夹具体设计夹具体是夹具的主体,直接或间接地把夹具中定位装置、 夹紧装置、 导向装置等连成一个能使工件在其中导入、 定位、 夹紧、 取出、 使夹具具备对刀能力并能在机床中进行定位和固定的整体。基于三维CAD技术进行设计,可充分运用其几何链接工具,把直接与夹具体关联的定位件、 夹紧件、 导向件的与夹具体的定位面、 联接面直接或间接相关的面链接到夹具体部件中,使之成为夹具体设计的链接特征。这样夹具体的设计始终与相关的定位件、 夹紧件、 导向件等关联,当这些结构的形式、 规格、 方位在设计中需调整时,则夹具体的设计随之变更。当工件结构有所调整时,夹具相关结构也会随之调整,以避免大量的重复劳动。316 标准件、 通用件及合成组件库的设计标准件、 通用件及合成组件的应用使夹具设计变得更为快捷、 有效。在夹具CAD系统中,使用这些结构应遵循夹具设计的内在规律,即系统中要支持用户选择标准件、 通用件、 组合件在工件上的作用面,能在作用面上确定作用位置,能定义其相对于工件的方向和位置。在夹具CAD系统设计中,要充分运用三维CAD软件的功能和二次开发工具,使得设计过程中的每个环节设置合理、 便于用户操作和拓展功能。参考文献1 谢家瀛.组合机床设计简明手册.北京:机械工业出版社,19942 杨黎明.机床夹具设计手册.北京:国防工业出版社,19963 孙大涌.先进制造技术.北京:机械工业出版社,1999(12) :31444 肖人彬,周 济,查建中.智能设计:概念、 发展与实践.中国机械工程,1997 ,8(2) :7476作者:咸 斌,盐城工学院机械工程系,224003江苏省盐城市3原机械工业部技术基金资助项目(项目编号:93J4002)辽宁省科学技术基金资助项目(项目编号:96216067)收稿日期:2004年12月大型齿轮在机测量中精密测角装置的研究3李启东1 李文龙2 丁广峰2 何韶君21沈阳工业大学 2大连民族学院摘 要:基于滚动摩擦传动机理,研究了大型齿轮在机测量中的摩擦盘精密测角原理与技术;从保证传动精度的角度,分析了精密测角装置中几何误差和 “弹性蠕滑” 等因素导致的传动误差,并给出了精密测角装置传动比的标定结果。关键词:滚动摩擦传动, 摩擦盘, 大型齿轮, 在机测量Study on Precision Angle2Measuring Equipmentin Large Gear On2machine MeasuringLi Qidong1Li Wenlong2Ding Guangfeng2et alAbstract :Based on the theoryof the rollingfriction transmission , the principle and techniques of obtaining an accurate anglebetween friction discs in on2machine measuring large gears are studied. In the condition of obtaining high transmission precision ,the transmission errors are analyzed , which are resultedfrom geometry errors and“elastic creep”of the two friction discs in the ac2curate angle measurement apparatus. The calibrating result of the transmission ratio is also presented.Keywords :roll friction transmission ,friction disc ,large gear ,on2machine measurement1 引言滚动运动通常可分解为自由滚动或纯滚动、 具有较大切向力的滚动和由于几何形状造成的接触区固有滑动的滚动等三种基本运动,常见的滚动运动多为这三种运动的不同组合。产生滚动摩擦力的机理主要有微观滑动、 弹性滞后、 塑性变形和粘着效65工 具 技 术 1994-2007 China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House. All rights reserved. 组合机床模块化设计 !# 系统河南科技大学机电工程学院（洛阳河南科技大学机电工程学院（洛阳!#$%!#$%）李春梅崔凤奎）李春梅崔凤奎一、组合机床 !# 系统总体模块化设计过程组合机床模块化设计就是根据用户的需求，在功能分析的基础上，设计出性能、结构各异而功能相同的一系列可互换功能性单元和一些专用、独立部件，然后将其组合成单台机床或者柔性加工单元。利用模块化设计的方法，建立组合机床模块化设计!#系统分为如下几个步骤：（$）组合机床功能分析首先需要进行市场调查，分析用户需要，根据组合机床的加工要求，总结出组合机床应该实现的功能，建立起组合机床的总体功能模型，并且将机床的功能分解为不同级别、不同层次的子功能。（%）总体结构设计在组合机床功能模型的基础上，实现功能结构映射。根据组合机床的功能层次，寻求实现功能的结构载体，产生机床结构布局方案，同时进行机床结构、外形尺寸的初步规划。进行总体结构设计的时候，应该合理地划分结构模块。每一个模块都应该具有独立的结构，对应一定的功能。（&）详细结构设计利用三维造型工具，将结构概念模型细化，确定机床每一层模块部件的详细结构，对模块进行标准化、系统化详细设计。针对组合机床的每一层模块都建立相应的全参数化控制三维模型库，用户在这个库中调用需要模块的三维模型进行装配。（）建立 !#系统主控界面和数据库等除了建立各级模块的相应三维模型库之外，本 !# 系统还要建立存放设计过程中所需要数据的数据库，以及设计过程!中的数据处理和分析程序。在三维模型库、数据库和$(机械工人为制造业创造价值机械工人冷加工$%&年第期!#$!%$!& 应用!#$%&$() (* +!, - +!. - +!/程序库之上，需要建立一个友好的人机交互界面。用户通过这个主控界面和模块造型库进行交互，在系统引导下完成设计过程中的模块选择、模块调用、模块组合和设计计算等过程。组合机床 !# 系统的设计过程中，模块化设计的思想贯穿始终。其中最重要的一步就是根据模块化设计理论，在设计模块的基础上建立组合机床产品模板库。模块的设计分为模块的划分和模块综合两部分。本系统主要在功能分析的基础上划分各级模块，采用面向装配的原则来设计模块的接口，实现模块综合的柔性和多样性。! 在功能分析的基础上划分组合机床的各级模块模块的划分是一个复杂的分析过程：模块划分太细，虽然可以组成较多的变型产品，但是模块的综合较为困难；模块划分过粗，模块的综合性较好，但是导致产品性能上的不合理，柔性太差。因此在划分组合机床模块的时候，需要综合考虑各方面的因素。组合机床具有明显的分级特性，因此我们按照分级划分的原则，从粗到细划分了不同级别、不同层次的模块，每一级的模块都可以划分为更小的模块。这样用户可以根据自己的需要选择合适级别的模块来进行设计。模块的分级划分建立在功能分析的基础上。每一级的模块都对应一定的功能，具有独立的结构。首先进行功能分析市场需求，将用户需求转化为机床的功能需求，然后分析组合机床的功能。建立组合机床总体的功能模型，并且将机床的功能分解为不同级别、不同层次的子功能。根据组合机床的整机功能，首先建立机床的总体功能模型，抽象出组合机床的总功能。组合机床整机的功能反映在它所完成的加工工艺内容上。组合机床整机可以完成钻孔、扩孔、铰孔、镗孔、切槽、切削内外螺纹、车削、铣削、磨削、滚压以及冲压、焊接、热处理、装配、自动测量等工序，可以实现单面钻孔、双面钻孔、三面钻孔等加工内容。因此在整机层次上，可以划分实现不同加工工艺内容的整机模块，例如单面钻孔组合机床模块、单面铣削组合机床模块、双面钻组合机床模块等。在整机功能之下，我们对组合机床的功能进行进一步划分。为了实现加工内容，组合机床需要对工件进行装夹、切削加工，加工过程中需要对工件冷却、照明等。对应于实现这些功能，组合机床可以分解为下面几部分：实现某种加工工艺内容的加工单元、工件装夹单元、控制单元、照明、冷却等辅助部分。例如一台三面钻单工位组合机床，可以将其分解为三个进行钻削加工的加工单元、工件装夹单元、冷却与润滑装置、机械扳手等。因此，这一层上可以划分为加工单元、装夹单元、控制单元等模块，如钻削加工单元模块、铣削加工单元模块等。对组合机床部件功能还可以做进一步细化。例如，对一个加工单元，要实现刀具的切削主运动、刀具的进给运动；对工件装夹单元，要实现工件的装夹、工件的进给等功能。与这些功能对应，可以把组合机床部件模块分为动力部件模块、输送部件模块、支撑部件模块、控制部件模块、辅助部件模块等。例如钻削头模块、液压滑动模块等。# 按照面向装配设计的原则设计模块接口面向装配设计是指在概念设计阶段就考虑装配中可能存在的问题，以确保零件快速有效地进行装配，从而支持自顶向下的设计过程。模块的划分和设计应该遵循面向装配设计的原则，需要解决的一个主要问题就是模块应该具有易于装配的互换性接口，以保证模块组合的快速准确。模块接口是有着相互结合关系的模块在结合部分存在的具有一定几何形状、尺寸和精度的边界结合表面。模块接口模型包括：接口形状、接口方位、接口功能。模块接口的设计中，应该考虑接口的的统一性，即具有相同功能的模块接口应该采用相同的接口几何形状，接口方位应该一致，模块接口材料、几何尺寸的精度、表面粗糙度应该尽可能统一。为了保证模块之间可以实现良好的互换性，接口的系列化是重要的途径。在模块接口系列化的基础上，对于同一系列的接口，提供标准化的接口几何尺寸系列数系。二、系统的模块化三维造型模板库本系统是以三维设计软件 $%&()*+&,-（简称 $.）作为开发平台，采用 $./0123 14 开发接口，5&-6)7 ! 88 编译环境，开发出组合机床 !# 系统。该系统包括组合机床加工示意图设计模块、切削用量计算模块、主轴箱设计模块和组合机床各级模块装配模型模板库。利用 $. $4-9:7;( 开发出与 $.风格完全一致的用户界面，采用数据库技术管理设计计算和模板库中的标准数据。本系统根据模块化设计的原则，将概念模型细化为=机械工人!为制造业创造价值#$%年第&期机械工人!冷加工!#$%&$() (* +!, - +!. - +!/!#$!%$!& 应用!具体的三维装配模型。系统的装配模型模板库是根据上述模块的划分而设定的。系统采用了三维参数化造型技术，为每一级模块都建立对应的三维模型。在设计模块的三维造型模板库的时候，遵循模块化设计的原则，系统具有下面的特点：! 采用参数化三维造型技术建立模块库参数化建模采用尺寸驱动技术，以约束造型为核心。三维模型通过参数来控制。控制三维模型的参数分为三种：（!）控制零件轮廓尺寸的参数对于通用件和标准件，零件的轮廓尺寸分为主要轮廓尺寸和次要轮廓尺寸。主要轮廓尺寸已经标准化、系列化，次要轮廓尺寸与主要轮廓尺寸有确定的约束关系。主要轮廓尺寸的标准化数据存放在数据库中，用户从界面输入所选标准件或者通用件的型号，系统在数据库中得到相应的标准数据，并且根据主要轮廓尺寸计算出次要轮廓尺寸，赋予三维模型并对模型进行更新。例如，组合机床中的立柱是通用件，它的外形尺寸已经标准化。在本系统中，将立柱的名义尺寸设为主参数，用户只需输入立柱的名义尺寸，系统以这个数据为查询参数，向数据库中查得立柱的底长、高度等参数，并根据系统中设定的一定尺寸关系计算出所有控制参数，赋予三维模型并更新。（）装配约束参数零件进行装配时，与其他部件间形成一定的装配约束关系，并可由装配参数控制。装配约束包括配合、对齐、平行、垂直等。（#）接口参数控制模块之间接口的形状、方位关系等参数。对于通用件和标准件，接口参数已经标准化，相应数据可以由数据库中自动获取。对于非通用件模块的接口设计，为了保证模块的互换性，也实行标准化系列化设计。例如主轴箱，因为与动力箱存在固定的装配关系，因此主轴箱的接口设计也实现了标准化。用户通过输入模块主参数，直接或者间接地控制模型参数，更新三维模型，生成需要的零部件。# 遵循面向对象的模块化设计原则系统设计模块时，采用面向对象的设计原则。对于每一个模块而言，包括两方面的信息，一方面是模块的内部信息，包括模块功能、内部结构尺寸等；另一方面是模块的外部信息，即接口信息，包括形状、方位、结合面属性等信息。系统将模块内部信息全部封装，内部信息对用户是一个黑箱，用户只需关心接口信息。例如，用户选择一个钻削加工单元时，只需输入钻削头名义尺寸，选择滑台类型，钻削加工单元模块内部的信息由系统在后台处理，如钻削头尺寸，相应滑台和侧底座尺寸，钻削头、滑台、侧底座之间的装配约束、接口尺寸都由系统在数据库查询并赋予三维模型并更新模型。$ 利用 %&(技术控制模块内部装配结构在模块的设计中，功能设计映射为结构设计是以装配模型作为表达设计功能的全局结构。装配模型由部件结构、部件之间的装配关系和装配约束组成，需要考虑部件之间功能结构上的关系以及零部件之间的装配顺序、装配方向等。组合机床设计模块对应的各级装配模型，不仅包括部件结构，还包括部件之间的装配关系和装配约束。在$%中，部件之间的装配约束可以由三种方法实现：尺寸驱动、约束驱动和 &()全相关设计。尺寸约束可以用来控制部件间的尺寸相关，约束驱动用来建立装配体中零部件之间在空间位置上的连接关系。&()（&*+,-./ 0,123+,.41 (+05+601 )37.3112.37）技术是 $% 实现全相关设计的关键技术，支持从概念设计到详细设计。本系统的模块设计中，使用 &()技术将模块按设计规则形成一个控制结构，在其中定义所需要的几何信息和参数，使组合机床各级模板装配模型中的子模块之间的几何特征都是整体相关。三、结论作者在模块化设计理论的基础上，在三维设计软件$%平台上进行二次开发，建立了组合机床 89 系统，实现了计算机辅助模块化设计。该系统提供了组合机床各级模块的参数化三维模型模板库，在每个层次级别上都建立了系列的模块模板库，支持产品从概念设计到详细设计。用户可以根据自己的需要，选择合适的平台模板来进行组合机床设计，有效地提高了设计效率，缩短产品开发周期。本系统可以进一步完善，为并行工程、智能化设计以及 89:8;:8!=!?）#机械工人!为制造业创造价值机械工人!冷加工#)*年第+期!#$!%$!& 应用!#$%&$() (* +!, - +!. - +!/机械毕业设计-课题名: ZH1105柴油机气缸体三面粗镗组合机床设计(后主轴箱设计)说明书.doc(32页14000字)毕业设计任务书后主轴箱设计-07.3.5.doc开题报告张岳军2007.doc实习报告张岳军2007.doc说明书封面张岳军2007.doc说明书摘要张岳军2007.doc外文翻译张岳军2007.doc文献张岳军2007A0(三图一卡)工序图张岳军 2007.dwgA0(三图一卡)后主轴箱装配图张岳军 2007.dwgA0(三图一卡)机床尺寸联系图张岳军 2007.dwgA0(三图一卡)加工示意图张岳军 2007.dwgA1(三图一卡)生产率计算卡张岳军 2007.dwgA3齿轮1张岳军 2007.dwgA3齿轮2张岳军 2007.dwgA3齿轮3张岳军 2007.dwgA4传动轴张岳军 2007.dwgA3缸套孔镗杆张岳军 2007.dwgA3后镗模体张岳军 2007.dwgA3主轴张岳军 2007.dwgZH1105柴油机气缸体粗镗组合机床后主轴箱设计摘 要：组合机床是由大量的通用部件和少量专用部件组成的工序集中的高效率专用机床。为了提高加工精度和生产效率，需要设计一台组合机床来改善柴油机气缸体的加工情况。本课题设计的是ZH1105柴油机气气缸体粗镗组合机床。用于加工被加工零件后主轴箱的孔，孔径为114.40.10，1150.10，122.40.10；表面粗糙度均为Ra6.3。设计的重点是总体设计和后主轴箱设计两部分。总体设计包括制定工艺方案，确定机床配置型式、结构方案以及“三图一卡”的绘制。后主轴箱设计包括后主轴箱装配图，零件图，有关计算、校核等。机床采用单工位卧式组合机床。刀具对零件的加工为平行加工，动力部件采用卧式安装，品字型结构。采用机械滑台实现刀具进给，借助导套引导刀具实现精度稳定的加工。本组合机床效率高，成本低，加工精度高，操作使用方便，减轻了工人的劳动强度，提高了劳动生产率。关键词：柴油机；气缸体；镗孔；组合机床；主轴箱Design of ZH1105 Diesel Cylinder Body Thick Boring Modular Machine Collectivity and Back Headstock Abstract: Modular Machine is composititved with a lot of currency parts and a small number of expert used parts focused on the working procedure of high efficiency dedicated machine. In order to prove the disposition and the production efficiency, we need to design a modular machine tool to improve the production of the diesel engine body. This topic is the design of ZH1105 diesel cylinder body thick boring modular machine. The modular machine tool is used to 114.40.10,1150.10,122.40.10 hole of back headstock, the surface roughness is Ra6.3. The focal point of this topic is the system design and the back headstock design. The system design including the definite of the modular machine tool, the selecting of the structure plan and the completing of the technological drawing of the part which need to be manufactured, the general drawing of modular machine tool, drawing of cutter display and the efficiency card of manufacture. The back headstock design including drawing the back headstock assemble, the box body complementarity process and accessory, bear on the calculation and checkout. The machine uses the horizontal-type single location modular machine. Tool used parallel processing on parts , and power components used horizontal installation, goods Text structure. Using mechanical sliding unit, with the aid of precisely leads the set of guidance cutting tool to complete dispositional process.This modular mechanical tool has such advantages,it is high efficiency, the cost is low, the processing precision is high, it is easy to operate, it reduces the workers labor intensity, and it enhanced the productivity.Key word: Diesel, Cylinder body,Bore hole, Modular machine tool, Headstock目 录1前言12 组合机床总体方案论证32.1 组合机床工艺方案的制定32.1.1工艺路线的确立32.1.2机床的选择32.1.3定位基准的选择42.1.4滑台型式的选择422组合机床配置型式的选择42.2.1组合机床的配置型式42.2.2选择机床配置型式和结构方案的一些问题42.3 削用量及选择刀具52.3.1选择切削用量52.3.2计算切削力、切削扭矩及切削功率72.3.3选择刀具结构112.4 机床总体设计三图一卡112.4.1被加工零件工序图112.4.2加工示意图122.4.3机床尺寸联系总图142.4.4机床生产率计算卡173.主轴箱设计193.1专用主轴箱设计193.2传动系统的设计.193.2.1电动机的选择.193.2.2电动机功率的选择.193.2.3传动系统总传动比的确定及各级分传动比的分.193.3齿轮的设计及参数的确定.203.3.1齿轮的设计.203.3.2齿轮参数的确定.233.4轴承的选择.263.5主轴箱附件的说明.273.5.1润滑及润滑元件.273.5.2其他附件.274结 论.28参考文献29致 谢30附 录311前言组合机床是由大量的通用部件和少量专用部件组成的工序集中的高效率专用机床。它能够对一种（或几种）零件进行多刀、多轴、多面、多工位加工。在组合机床上可以完成钻孔、扩孔、铰孔、镗孔、攻丝、车削、铣削、磨削及滚压等工序，生产效率高，加工精度稳定。组合机床具有如下特点：a要用于棱体类零件和杂件的孔面加工。b产率高。因为工序集中，可多面、多工位、多轴、多刀同时自动加工。c加工精度稳定。因为工序固定，可选用成熟的通用部件、精密夹具和自动工作循环来保证加工精度的一致性。d研制周期短，便于设计、制造和使用维护，成本低。因为通用化、系列化、标准化程度高，通用零部件占70%90%，通用件可组织批量生产进行预制或外购。e自动化程度高，劳动强度低。f配置灵活。因为结构模块化、组合化。可按工件或工序要求，用大量通用部件和少量专用部件灵活组成各种类型的组合机床及自动线；机床易于改装；产品或工艺变化时，通用部件一般还可重复利用。组合机床的设计，目前基本上有两种情况：其一，是根据具体加工对象的具体情况进行专门设计，这是当前最普遍的做法。其二，随着组合机床在我国机械行业的广泛使用，广大工人总结自己生产和使用组合机床的经验，发现组合机床不仅在其组成部件方面有共性，可设计成通用部件。而且一些行业的在完成一定工艺范围的组合机床是极其相似的，有可能设计为通用机床，这种机床称为“专能组合机床”。这种组合机床就不需要每次按具体加工对象进行专门设计和生产，而是可以设计成通用品种，组织成批生产，然后按被加工的零件的具体需要，配以简单的夹具及刀具，即可组成加工一定对象的高效率设备。对于本课题的一些设计理论思路：a. 制定工艺方案 在这之前的一段实习期，我们深入现场，了解零件的加工特点、精度和技术要求、定位夹压情况以及生产率的要求等。确定在组合机床上完成的工艺内容及其加工方法。这里要确定加工工步数，决定刀具的种类和型式b. 机床结构方案的分析和确定 根据总体方案确定机床的型式和总体布局。要考虑实现工艺方案和保证加工精度、技术要求、生产效率等。c. 组合机床总体设计 绘制机床联系尺寸图及加工示意图等。e. 组合机床的部件设计和施工设计 这里要求确定机床各部件间的关系，选择通用部件和刀具的导向，计算切削用量及机床生产率即本人所进行的左主轴箱设计，根据主轴的分布，转速，转向以及尺寸要求等进行设计。f. 采用组合机床，由于采用多轴多面加工就能大大地缩小占用面积，成倍或几十倍地提高劳动生产率。发展组合机床及其自动线，对于机械制造业，特别是汽车、拖拉机、柴油机、仪器、仪表、矿山机械、航空、纺织机械以及军工部门等生产的发展，有着很重要 外文翻译专 业 机械设计制造及自动化 学 生 姓 名 张 岳 军 班 级 BMZ机制031 学 号 0361440102 指 导 教 师 刘 必 荣 .外文资料名称：MACHINE TOOLS 外文资料出处： Computer-Aided Design 附 件：1.外文资料翻译译文 2.外文原文 指导教师评语： 签名： 年 月 日附件1机 床张岳军译摘要：车床用于旋转工件并从生成所需加工表面的所需方向进给切削刀具。最常见的车床形式是以图解方式显示的六角车床，它由一个支撑床头箱、拖板和六角刀架的水平床身组成。工件夹在卡盘或夹头中，或者安装在机床主轴端部的花盘上。关键字：机床 车床机床基础许多情况下，初步进行成型加工出来的工件必须在尺寸和表面光洁度方面进一步精整，以满足它们的设计技术要求。为了满足精密的公差，需要从工件上去掉小量材料。通常机床就是用于这种加工的设备。在美国，材料切削业是一个很大的企业费用每年超过36109美元，包括材料，劳动力，管理费，机床装运费等所花的费用。由于60机械和工业工程以及技术等级评定工作都跟机械加工工业有某些关系，或者通过买卖、设计或者机器车间中操作或在有关工业企业中加工，因此，对于工程专业学生来说，在他的学习计划中集中一段时间去学习研究材料切削和机床，那是个好方法。机床通过切削工具去使工件成型以达到所需的尺寸提供了手段。机床通过其基础构件的功能作用，以控制相互关系方式支持、夹紧工具和工件，现将基本部件列举如下：a）床身，构架即机架。这是一个主要部件，该部件为主轴、拖板箱等提供一个基础和连接中介，在负载作用下，它必须使变形和振动保持最小。b）拖板箱和导轨。机床部件（如拖板箱）的移动，通常是在精确的导轨面约束下靠直线运动来实现。c）主轴和轴承。角位移是围绕一个旋转轴线发生的，该轴线的位置必须在机床中极端精确的限度内保持恒定，而且是靠精密的主轴和轴承来提供保证。d）动力装置。电动机是为机床所普遍采用的动力装置。通过对各个电机的合适定位，使皮带和齿轮传动装置减少到最少。e）传动连杆机构。连杆机构是个通用术语，用来代表机械、液压、气动或电动机构的，这些机构与确定的角位移和线性位移相关联。加工工艺有两个主要组成部分：a）粗加工工艺。粗加工，金属切除率高，因而往往切削力也大，但所要求的尺寸精度低。b）精加工工艺。精加工，金属切除率低，因而往往切削力也小，但所要求的尺寸精度和表面光洁度高。由此可见，静载荷和动载荷，例如由不平衡的砂轮引起的动载荷，在精加工中比粗加工中有着更为重要的意义。任何加工过程所获得的精度通常将受到由于力的作用引起发生的变形量的影响。机床座架一般是用铸铁制造的，然而有些也可能用铸钢或中碳钢来制造。选用铸铁是因为它便宜，刚性好，受压强度高，并且有减弱机床操作中产生的振动的能力。为了避免床身铸件硕大断面，精心地设计筋条构架以便提供最大的抗弯曲和抗扭转应力的能力。筋条的两种基本类型是：箱型结构和片状斜支撑式。箱型结构便于生产，箱壁上有孔口便于使型芯定位和取出。片状斜支撑筋条有较大的抗扭刚度亦能使截面上的碎屑掉落。它常常用于车床床身。机床的拖板箱和导轨是支撑和引导彼此相对运动的零部件，通常是改变刀具相对于工件的位置。运动一般以直线运动的方式，但也有时是转动，例如对应于工件的螺纹上的螺旋角方向而使万能螺纹磨床上的砂轮头转动一个角度。拖板箱构件的基本的几何结构形状是平的、V型槽形、燕尾槽形和圆柱形的。这些构件可根据用途，以各种方法分别使用或结合使用。导轨的特性如下：（a）运动精确。于此拖板是要按直线移动的，这直线必定是由两个相互垂直的平面形成而且拖板必定不存在转动。机床导轨的直线度公差是每米00.02毫米，在水平面上这个公差可以进行处理，以使得到凸形表面，这样就抵消导轨下凹的作用。（b）调整手段。为了便于装配、维护精度和在发生磨损后便于限制移动构件之间的“窜动”，有时在拖板内装入扁条，这扁条被叫做“锒条”。通常该锒条用穿过长孔的沉头螺钉支住，而用平头螺钉调整好后用锁紧螺母上紧。（c）润滑。导轨可用以下两种装置进行润滑：1）间歇润滑，通过润滑脂嘴或油嘴进行。这是一种适于运动速度低而不频繁场合的方法。2）连续润滑，例如通过计量阀和管道将润滑油泵送到润滑点。用这种方法引入两表面间的油膜必定是很薄的，目的是避免使拖板“浮起”。如果滑移表面似镜面平滑，油就会被挤出而导致表面粘贴。因而在实践上，拖板滑移表面是用凹面砂轮的刃进行磨削或进行刮研。两种工艺都可产生微小的表面凹痕，它就成为存油凹陷，相配合的零件就不会处因“浮起”而发生分离，这样使拖板确定保持接触导轨。（d）防护。为了维护导轨处于良好状态，以下条件必须满足：1）必须防止外面物质，如碎屑进入。具有某一形状的导轨那是所期望的。在这种场合，是不可能进入杂物的，例如是倒V形的导轨时，那就不可能保存碎屑杂物在导轨上。2）必须保存润滑油。在垂直或倾斜的导轨面上使用的油要有粘性，那很重要。为了这种使用目的已经专门研制出多种有用的润滑油。油的粘性也要保护，以免被切削液冲毁。3）必须用防护罩来防止意外的损坏。车床一台机床实现三个主要功能：（1）牢固地支持工件或者刀架和刀具；（2）在工件和刀具之间提供相对运动；（3）提供一定的走刀和切削速度范围。以去除切屑形式来加工金属的机床一般被分为四大类：使用单点刀具切削的机床；使用多点刀具切削的机床；使用随机点刀具切削的机床（磨削）和考虑用于特殊场合的机床。本质上，使用单点刀具切削的机床包括：（1）普通车床；（2）塔式车床；（3）仿形车床；（4）单轴自动车床；（5）多轴自动车床；（6）牛头刨床和龙门刨床；（7）镗床。使用多点刀具切削的机床包括：（1）钻床；（2）铣床；（3）拉床；（4）锯床；（5）齿轮切割机床。使用随机点刀具切削的机床包括：（1）外圆磨床；（2）无心磨床；（3）平面磨床。用特殊的方法进行金属切削的机床包括：（1）化学蚀刻铣削机床；（2）电火花加工机床；（3）超声波加工机床。车床是借助于转动的工件对着刀具来切去金属材料，以产生外圆柱面或内圆柱面或锥形表面的。它借助端面切削也普遍用于加工平面。在端面切削加工中，工件旋转，而刀具作垂直于回转轴线方向移动。普通车床是基本的旋削机床，从这点出发，已经研制出其他旋削机床。驱动电机装在床身基础上并通过齿轮、皮带相结合来驱动主轴，以提供每分钟25到1500转的转速。主轴是一根坚固的空心轴，装在重型轴承之间，其前端用来安装驱动盘（花盘），以便把确定的运动传到工件。该驱动盘可借助螺纹、凸轮锁紧机构或借助一个螺纹垫圈和键固定在主轴上。车床的床身是铸铁件，它提供精确的磨削的滑动表面（导轨），其上放有拖板。该车床拖板是H型的铸件，而刀具就安装在拖板上的刀架上。溜板箱装在拖板前面，并装有移动刀具的齿轮机构，而拖板顺着导轨或横过导轨以提供所希望的刀具的运动。拖板上面的小刀架能使刀夹回转所要求的任意角度。为使刀具作线性运动，在小刀架上装有手轮和丝杆。以手轮和使小刀架垂直于车床导轨移动的丝杆来提供横向进给。溜板箱中的齿轮系可为拖板沿着导轨和横跨导轨提供动力进给。进给箱齿轮将运动传给拖板并控制刀具相对于工件的运动速度。典型的车床进给范围是主轴每转从0.002到0.160英寸，大约有50级转速。由于进给箱的移动运动是由主轴齿轮驱动的，因此进给量直接与主轴速度有关。进给箱齿轮传动机构也用于加工螺纹并能加工每英寸4到224扣螺纹。进给箱和车床溜板箱之间的连结轴是光杆和丝杆。许多车床制造商把这两杆结合成一杆，实际上那就以精确的开支减少机器的费用。进给杆（光杆）用于提供刀具的运动，它对于精确的工件和好的表面光洁度是很重要的。螺纹导杆（丝杆）用于提供精确的（螺纹）导程，这对于螺纹切削是必需的。光杆是通过摩擦离合器来驱动的，那样在刀具切削超载情况下能够打滑保护。这一安全装置不能装在丝杆上，因为螺纹加工是不允许打滑的。由于螺纹全深很难一次走刀加工完成，因此装设一螺纹指示盘作为下几次走刀加工时重新对刀用。车床装有尾座，它具有一精确的轴，该轴有一锥孔，以便安装钻头、钻夹、铰刀和车床顶针。尾座可以沿着车床导轨移动以适应工件的不同长度以及加工锥体或锥形表面。转塔车床基本上是具有某种附加特性的普通车床，提供作为半自动加工和减少人工操作误差的机会。转塔车床的拖板设有T形槽以便在车床导轨两端安装夹刀装置，当转塔转入到合适位置时，要正确地装设刀具以便进行切削。拖板也装设有自动停机装置以便控制刀具行程和提供良好的切削的再生产。转塔车床的尾座是六角形结构，在六角头中可以装六把刀具。虽然装刀和加工准备要花大量时间，但转塔车床一次装刀以后无需熟练工人就可以连续地重复地操作加工，直到刀具变钝并需更换为止。这样转塔车床仅就生产工作在经济上是可行的、合理的，于此，根据所制造零件的数量，为加工准备需要花一定数量的时间那是合理的，无可非议的。跟踪、重复加工车床装有一个重复装置以自动控制单点刀具纵向和横向的进给运动并可以一次或两次走刀就生产出所需形状和尺寸的光洁零件。单轴自动车床使用一个立式转塔和两个横向溜板。工件通过机床主轴孔被送入卡盘，而刀具是靠凸轮来自动操作控制。多轴自动车床装有四、五、六或八根主轴，在每根主轴中装一个工件。各主轴围绕着一根中心轴来转换位置。以主刀具溜板去接近各主轴。每根轴位上都装有一侧向可以独立操作的刀具滑板。由于各刀具滑板都是靠凸轮操作的，因此加工准备可能花几天时间，因而至少需要5000件的批量生产，它的使用才是合理的。这种机床的主要优点就是所有的刀具同时工作，因而一个工人可以看管几部机床。对于相对简单的零件而言，多轴自动车床可以以每五秒钟一件的速度生产加工出成品来。附件2MACHINE TOOLSShigley J E, Vicher J J. Theory of machines and mechanisms. New York: MeGraw-Hill Book Company, 2000Abstract: Lathes are designed to rotate the workpiece and feed the cutting tool in the direction necessary to the required machined surface. The most common form of lathe is the turret lathe it consists of a horizontal bed supporting the headstock,the carriage and the turret.The workpiece is gripped in a chuck or is mounted on a faceplate mounted on the end of the main spindle of the machine.Keyword: machine tools lathes Fundamentals of Machine ToolsIn many cases products from the primary forming processes must undergo further refinements in size and surface finish to meet their design specifications. To meet such precise tolerances the removal of small amounts of material is needed. Usually machine tools are used for such operation.In the United States material removal is a big business-in excess of $ 36 X 109 per year, including material, labor, overhead, and machine tool shipments, is spent. Since 60 percent of the mechanical and industrial engineering and technology graduates have something connection with the machining industry either through sale, design, or operation of machine shops, or working in related industry it is wise for an engineering student to devote some time in his curriculum to studying material removal and machine tools.A machine tool provides the means for cutting tools to shape a workpiece to required dimensions; the machine supports the tool and the workpiece in a controlled relationship through the functioning of its basic members, which are as follows:(a) Bed, Structure or Frame. This is the main member, which provides a basis for, and a connection between, the spindles and slides; the distortion and vibration under load must be kept to a minimum.(b) Slides and Slideways. The translation of a machine element (e.g. the slide) is normally achieved by straight-line motion under the constraint of accurate guiding surfaces (the slideway).(c) Spindles and Bearings. Angular displacements take place about an axis of rotation; the position of this axis must be constant within extremely fine limits in machine tools, and is ensured by the provision of precision spindles and bearings.(d) Power Unit. The electric motor is the universally adopted power unit for machine tools. By suitably positioning individual motors, belt and gear transmissions are reduced to a minimum.(e) Transmission Linkage. Linkage is the general term used to denote the mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic or electric mechanisms, which connect angular and linear displacements in defined relationship.There are two broad divisions of machining operations;(a) Roughing, for which the metal removal rate, and consequently the cutting force, is high, but the required dimensional accuracy relatively low.(b) Finishing, for which the metal removal rate, and consequently the cutting force, is low, but the required dimensional accuracy and surface finish relatively high.It follows that static loads and dynamic loads, such as result from an unbalanced grinding wheel, are more significant in finishing operations than in roughing operations. The degree of precision achieved in any machining process will usually be influenced by the magnitude of the deflections, which occur as a result of the force acting.Machine tool frames are generally made in cast iron, although some may be steel casting or mild-steel fabrications. Cast iron is chosen because of its cheapness, rigidity, compressive strength and capacity for damping the vibrations set-up in machine operations. To avoid massive sections in castings, carefully designed systems of ribbing are used to offer the maximum resistance to bending and torsional stresses. Two basic types of ribbing are box and diagonal. The box formation is convenient to produce, apertures in walls permitting the positioning and extraction of cores. Diagonal ribbing provides greater torsional stiffness and yet permits sward to fall between the sections; it is frequently used for lathe beds.The slides and slide ways of a machine tool locate and guide members which move relative to each other, usually changing the position of the tool relative to the workpiece. The movement generally takes the form of translation in a straight line, but is sometimes angular rotation e.g. tilting the wheel-head of a universal thread-grinding machine to an angle corresponding with the helix angle of the workpiece thread. The basic geometric elements of slides are flat, vee, dovetail and cylinder. These elements may be used separately or combined in various ways according to the applications. Features of slideways are as follows;(a) Accuracy of Movement. Where a slide is to be displaced in a straight line, this line must lie in two mutually perpendicular planes and there must be no slide rotation. The general tolerance for straightness of machine tool slideways is 00.02mm per 1000mm; on horizontal surfaces this tolerance may be disposed so that a convex surface results, thus countering the effect of sag of the slideway.(b) Means of Adjustment. To facilitate assembly, maintain accuracy and eliminate play between sliding members after wear has taken place, a strip is sometimes inserted in the slides. This is called a gibstrip. Usually, the gib is retained by socket-head screws passing through elongated slots; and is adjusted by grub-screws secured by lock nuts,(c) Lubrication. Slideways may be lubricated by either of the following systems,1) Intermittently through grease or oii nipples, a method suitable where movements are infrequent and speed low.2) Continuously, e.g. by pumping through a metering valve and pipe-work to the point of application) the film of oil introduced between surfaces by these means must be extremely thin to avoid the slide floating. If sliding surfaces were optically flat oil would be squeezed out, resulting in the surfaces sticking. Hence in practice slide surfaces are either ground using the edge of a cup wheel, or scraped. Both processes produce minute surface depressions, which retain pocket of oil, and complete separation of the parts may not occur at all points positive location of the slides is thus retained.(d) Protection. To maintain slideways in good order, the following conditions must be met.1) Ingress of foreign matter, e.g. swarf, must be prevented. Where this is no possible, it is desirable to have a form of slideway, which does not retain swarf, e.g. the inverted vee.2) Lubricating oil must be retained. The adhesive property of oil for use on vertical or inclined slide surface is important; oils are available which have been specially developed for this purpose. The adhesiveness of oil also prevents it being washed away by cutting fluids.3) Accidental damage must be prevented by protective guards.LathesA machine tool performs three major functions; (1) it rigidly supports the workpiece or its holder and the cutting tool; (2) it provides relative motion between the workpiece and the cutting tool; (3) it provides a range of feeds and speeds. Machines used to remove metal in the form of chips are classified in four general groups: those using single-point tools, those multipoint tools, those using random point tools (abrasive), and those that are considered special.Machines using basically the single-point cutting tools include, (1) engine lathes, (2) turret lathes, (3) tracing and duplicating lathes, (4) single-spindle automatic lathes, (5) multi-spindle automatic lathes, (6) shapers and planers, (7) boring machines.Machines using multipoint cutting tools include: (1) drilling machines, (2) milling machines, (3) broaching machines, (4) sawing machines, (5) gear-cutting machines.Machines using random-point cutting tools include; (1) cylindrical grinder, (2) centreless grinders, (3) surface grinders. Special metal removal methods include: (1) chemical milling, (2) electrical discharge machining, (3) ultrasonic machining.The lathe removes material by rotating the workpiece against a cutter to produce external or internal cylindrical or conical surfaces. It is also commonly used for the production of flat surfaces by facing, in which the workpiece is rotated while the cutting tool is moved perpendicularly to the axis of rotation.The engine lathe is the basic turning machine from which other turning machines have been developed. The drive motor is located in the base and drives the spindle through a combination of belts and gears, which provides the spindle speeds from 25 to 1500 rpm. The spindle is a sturdy hollow shaft, mounted between heavy-duty bearings, with the forward end used for mounting a drive plate to impart positive motion to the workpiece. The drive plate may be fastened to the spindle by threads, by a cam lock mechanism, or by a threaded collar and key.The lathe bed is cast iron and provides accurately ground-sliding surfaces (way) on which the carriage rides. The lathe carriage is a H-shaped casting on which the cutting tool is mounted in a tool holder. The apron hangs from the front of the carriage and contains the driving gears that move the tool and carnage along or across the way to provide the desired tool motion.A compound rest, located above the carriage provides for rotation of the tool holder through any desired angle. A hand wheel and feed screw are provided on the compound rest for linear motions of the tool. The cross feed is provided with a hand wheel and feed screw for moving the compound rest perpendicular to the lathe way. A gear train in the apron provides power feed for the carriage both along and across the way. The feed box contains gears to impart motion to the carriage and control the rate at which the tool moves relative to the workpiece. On a typical lathe feeds range from 0.002 to 0.160 in. per revolution of the spindle, in about 50 steps. Since the transmission in the feed box is driven from the spindle gears, the feeds are directly related to the spindle speed. The feed box gearing is also used in thread cutting and provides from 4 to 224 threads per in.The connecting shaft between the feed box and the lathe apron are the feed rod and the lead screw. Many lathe manufacturers combine these two rods in one, a practice that reduces the cost of the machine at the expense of accuracy. The feed rod is used to provide tool motion essential for accurate workpiece and good surface finishes. The lead screw is used to provide the accurate lead necessary for the thread cutting. The feed rod is driven through a friction clutch that allows slippage m case the tool is overloaded. This safety device is not provided in the lead screw, since thread cutting cannot tolerate slippage. Since the full depth of the thread is seldom cut in one pass, a chasing dial is provided to realign the tool for subsequent passes.The lathe tailstock is fitted with an accurate spindle that has a tapered hole for mounting drills, drill chucks, reamers, and lathe centers. The tailstock can be moved along the lathe ways to accommodate various lengths of workpieces as well as to advance a tool into contact with the workpiece. The tailstock can be offset relative to the lathe ways to cut tapers or conical surfaces.The turret lathe is basically an engine lathe with certain additional features to provide for semiautomatic operation and to reduce the opportunity for human error. The carriage of the turret lathe is provided with T-slots for mounting a tool-holding device on both sides of the lathe ways with tools properly set for cutting when rotated into position. The carriage is also equipped with automatic stops that control the tool travel and provide good reproduction of cuts. The tailstock of the turret lathe is of hexagonal design, in which six tools can be mounted. Although a large amount of time is consumed in setting up the tools and stops for operation, the turret lathe, once set, can continue to duplicate operations with a minimum of operator skill until the tools become dulled and need replacing. Thus, the turret lathe is economically feasible only for production work, where the amount of time necessary to prepare the machine for operation is justifiable in terms of the number of part to be made.Tracing and duplicating lathes are equipped with a duplicating device to automatically control the longitudinal and cross feed motions of the single-point cutting tool and provide a finished part of required shape and size in one or two passes of the tools.The single-spindle automatic lathe uses a vertical turret as well as two cross slides. The work is fed through the machine spindle into the chuck, and cams operate the tools automatically.The multispindle automatic lathe is provided with four, five, six, or eight spindles, with one workpiece mounted in each spindle. The spindles index around a central shaft, with the main tool slide accessible to all spindles. Each spindle position is provided with a side tool-slide operated independently. Since cams operate all of the slides, the preparation of this machine may take several days, and a production run of at least 5000 parts is needed to justify its use. The principal advantage of this machine is that all tools work simultaneously, and one operator can handle several machines. For relatively simple parts, multispindle automatic lathes can turn out finished products at the rate of 1 every 5 sec.Shapers, Drilling and Milling Machines A shapers utilizes a single-point tool in a tool holder mounted on the end of the ram. Cutting is generally done on the forward stroke. The tool is lifted slightly by the clapper box to prevent excessive drag across the work, which is fed under the tool during the return stroke in preparation for the next cut. The column houses the operating mechanisms of the shaper and also serves as a mounting unit for the work-supporting table. The table can be moved in two directions mutually perpendicular lo the ram. The tool slide is used to control the depth of cut and is manually fed. It can be rotated through 90 deg. on either side of its normal vertical position, which allows feeding the tool at an angle to the surface of the table.Two types of driving mechanisms for shapers are a modified Whitworth quick-return mechanism and a hydraulic drive. For the Whitworth mechanism, the motor drives the hull gear, which drives a crank arm with an adjustable crank pin to control the length of stroke. As the bull gear rotates, the rocker arm is forced to reciprocate, imparting this motion to the shaper ram.The motor on a hydraulic shaper is used only to drive the hydraulic pump. The remainders of the shaper motions are controlled by the direction of the flow of the hydraulic oil. The cutting stroke of the mechanically driven shaper uses 220 deg. of rotation of the bull gear, while the return stroke uses HO deg. This gives a cutting stroke to return stroke ratio of 1.6 to 1. The velocity diagram shows that the velocity of the tool during the cutting stroke is never constant, while the velocity diagram for a hydraulic shaper shows that for most of the cutting stroke the cutting speed is constant. The hydraulic shaper has an added advantage of infinitely variable cutting speeds. The principal disadvantage of this type of machine is the lack of a definite limit at the end of the ram stroke, which may allow a few thousandths of an inch variation in stroke length.A duplicating device that makes possible the reproduction of contours from a sheet-metal template is available. The sheet metal template is used in conjunction with hydraulic control.Upright drilling machines or drill presses are available in a variety of sizes and types, and arc equipped with a sufficient range of spindle speeds and automatic feeds to fit the needs of most industries. Speed ranges on a typical machine are from 76 to 2025 rpm., with drill feed from 0.002 to 0.020 in. per revolution of the spindle.Radial drilling machines are used to drill workpieces that are too large or cumbersome to conveniently move. The spindle with the speed and teed changing mechanism is mounted on the radial arm by combining the movement of the radial arm around column and the movement of the spindle assembly along the arm, it is possible to align the spindle and the drill to any position within reach of the machine. For work that is too large to conveniently support on the base, the spindle assembly can be swung out over the floor and the workpiece set on the floor beside the machine.Plain radial drilling machines provide only for vertical movement of the spindle; universal machines allow the spindle to swivel about an axis normal to the radial arm and the radial arm to rotate about a horizontal axis, thus permitting drilling at any angle.A multispindle drilling machine has nm or more heads that drive the spindles through universal joints and telescoping splined shafts. All spindles are usually driven by the same motor and fed simultaneously to drill the desired number of holes. In most machines each spindle is held in an adjustable plate so that it can be moved relative to the others. The area covered by adjacent spindles overlap so that the machine can be set to drill holes at any location within its range.The milling operation involves metal removal with a rotating cutter. It includes removal of metal from the surface of a workspiece, enlarging holes, and form cutting such as threads and gear teeth.Within an knee and column type of milling machine the column is the main supporting member for the other components, and includes the base containing the drive motor, the spindle, and the cutter. The cutter is mounted on an arbor Held in the spindle* and supported on its outer extremity by a bearing in the over arm. The knee is held on the column in dovetail slots, the saddle is fastened to the knee in dovetail slots, and the table is attached to the saddle. Thus, the build-up of the knee and column machine provides three motions relative to the cutter. A four motion may be provided by swiveling the table around a vertical axis provided on the saddle.Fixed-bed milling machines are designed to provide more rigidity than the knee and column type. The table is mounted directly on the machine base, which provides the rigidity necessary for absorbing heavy cutting load, and allows only longitudinal motion to the table. Vertical motion is obtained by moving the entire cutting head.Tracer milling is characterized by coordinated or synchronized movements of either the paths of the cutter and tracing elements, or the paths of the workpiece and model. In a typical tracer mill the tracing finger follow the shape of the master pattern, and the cutter heads duplicate the tracer motion.The following are general design considerations for milling:1. Wherever possible, the part should be designed so that a maximum number of surfaces can be milled2. Design for the use of multiple cutters to mill several surfaces simultaneously.3. The largest flat surface will be milled first, so that all dimensions are best referred to such surface. 4. Square inside corners are not possible, since the cutter rotates.Grinding Machines and Special Metal-removal ProcessRandom point-cutting tools include abrasives in the shape of a wheel, bonded to a belt, a stick, or simply suspended in liquid. The grinding process is of extreme importance in production work for several reasons.1. It is the most common method for cutting hardened tool steel or other heat-treated steel. Parts are first machined in the un-heal-treated condition, and then ground to the desired dimensions and surface finish.2. It can provide surface finish to 0.5jtm without extreme cost.3. The grinding operation can assure accurate dimensions in a relatively short tune since machines are built to provide motions in increments of ten-thousandths of an inch, instead of thousandths as is common in other machines.4. Extremely small and thin parts can be finished by this method, since light pressure is used and the tendency for the part to deflect away from the cutter is minimized.On cylindrical grinding machine the grinding wheel rotates between 5500 and 6500 rpm., while the work rotates between 60 and 125 rpm. . The depth of cut is controlled by moving the wheel head, which includes both the wheel and its drive motor. Coolants are provided to reduce heat distortion and to remove chips and abrasive dust.Material removal from ductile materials can be accomplished by using a tool which is harder than the workpiece. However during World War I the widespread use of materials which were as hard as or harder than cutting tools created a demand for new material-removal methods. Since then a number of processes have been developed which, although relatively slow and costly, can effectively remove excess material in a precise and repeatable fashion-