英语专业毕业论文-浅析中美非语言交际差异.doc

Analysis of Differences of Nonverbal Communication between Chinese and American I. IntroductionHuman communication is usually divided first into verbal and nonverbal systems. We communicate more than we say. Actually, in everyday life, we spend a considerable amount of time on nonverbal communication. In addition, we receive much of our emotional meanings through nonverbal elements.Mehrabian, observing how feeling is transmitted in messages, found that as much as 93 percent of emotional meaning is transmitted nonverbally (Hickson & Stacks, 1989: 6). Most researchers believe that Mehrabians 93 percent figure may be a little high, but at the same time, they do accept the relatively high impact of nonverbal communication. Another statistic figured out by Birdwhistells and Philpotts approximations, said that nonverbal communication accounts for 60 to 70 percent of what we communicate to one another (Tubbs & Moss, 1991:137). It should be noted that this statistic has been widely accepted and reported by most contemporary nonverbal communication books.Since only about 30% of what is communicated in a conversation is verbal, nonverbal communication is of great significance. Whether we are truly successful communicators or not depends a lot on our awareness of the role that nonverbal communication played and our ability to use nonverbal skills appropriately.We should note that although many cultures share some nonverbal behaviors, nonverbal codes are influenced by culture. Cultural differences in nonverbal communication sometimes can lead to misunderstandings. With increasing contact between China and America, a better understanding between both cultures is of growing importance. Nonverbal communication influences how individuals from these two cultures interact and understand or misunderstand each other. Therefore, an understanding of the differences is vital for building harmonious relationships. The thesis is designed to help readers understand and appreciate the differences in nonverbal communication that Chinese and Americans discover when they intercourse in daily situations.II. Foundations of Nonverbal Communication2.1 Definition of Nonverbal Communication海量英语论文尽在英语论文网，免费下载网址：/需要其他类型英语论文可以咨询 QQ 253771735Just like culture, there are numerous definitions for nonverbal communication. To theorize about nonverbal communication has been complicated not only by its multimodal and multifunctional nature, but also because our knowledge emanates from disparate disciplines with differing assumptions and methodologies.In its broadest definition, Devito, and Guerrero defines nonverbal communication as “all the messages other than words that people exchange in interactive contexts” (Guerrero, DeVito & Hecht, 1999:56). To further define what qualifies as nonverbal communication, experts have identified several perspectives, including those that assume all human behavior is potentially communicative, communicative only if intentionally sent, and communicative if behaviors reasonably function as messages within a given speech community (see Burgoon & Hoobler). Defined as such, nonverbal communication includes those behaviors that are mutually recognized and socially shared codes and patterns with a focus on message meaning. For example, an unintended frown when reading a memo may function as a message because most people regard it as a sign of displeasure. A frown in response to a stubbed toe is less likely to be regarded as a message because it is a more spontaneous, involuntary reaction.Nonverbal communication is usually understood as the process of communication through sending and receiving wordless messages. Such messages can be communicated through gesture; body language or posture; facial expression and eye contact; object communication such as clothing, hairstyles or even architecture; symbols and infographics. Speech may also contain nonverbal elements known as paralanguage, including voice quality, emotion and speaking style, as well as prosodic features such as rhythm, intonation and stress. Likewise, written texts have nonverbal elements such as handwriting style, spatial arrangement of words, or the use of emoticons. However, much of the study of nonverbal communication has focused on face-to-face interaction, where it can be classified into three principal areas: environmental conditions where communication takes place, the physical characteristics of the communicators, and behaviors of communicators during interaction. Nonverbal communication can occur through any sensory channel sight, sound, smell, touch or taste. Nonverbal communication is important as: “when we speak (or listen), our attention is focused on words rather than body language. But our judgment includes both. An audience is simultaneously processing both verbal and nonverbal cues. Body movements are not usually positive or negative in and of themselves; rather, the situation and the message will determine the appraisal. (Givens, 2000, p. 4) Nonverbal communication involves all those nonverbal stimuli in a communication setting that are generated by both the source and his or her use of the environment and that has potential message value for the source or receiver.”(Samovar & Porter, 2000:56)It not only marks the boundaries of nonverbal communication, but also reflects how the process actually works. Both intentional and unintentional behaviors are included in the communication event.2.2 Functions of Nonverbal CommunicationNonverbal communication often performs one of several functions in relationship to verbal communication. These functions help us to understand and use communication more effectively. Nonverbal messages serve six major functions: repetition, contradiction, substitution, accentuation, supplementation or modification and regulation. (Gibson & Hanna, 1992: 98)(1) Repetition is defined as the process of reinforcing verbal messages through redundancy. People often use nonverbal messages to repeat a point they are trying to make. For example, we might hold up our hand in the gesture that signifies a person to stop at the same time we actually use the word stop. Generally speaking, the gestures and words have a similar meaning and reinforce one another.(2) Contradiction is the opposite of repetition; it negates the verbal messages. On some occasions, our nonverbal actions send signals opposite from the literal messages contained in our verbal messages. For instance, you tell someone you are relaxed and at ease, yet your voice quavers and your hands shake.(3) Substitution is a function of inserting nonverbal messages for a verbal massage. We use substitution in nonverbal communication when we perform some action instead of speaking. (4) Accentuation is the result of nonverbal messages used to strengthen words. We sometimes use nonverbal messages to accentuate our sentences, e.g. You may have noticed how some people tap the desktop with each word of an important message.(5) Supplementation or modification results when nonverbal messages slightly change the words they accompany. For example, when you are answering the phone, your friend just enters your room, so you nod to your friend or make a gesture showing please sit down at the same time. Nonverbal messages add to or modify the words as surely as tears add meaning to the sentence “sorry”.(6) Regulation occurs when nonverbal messages help to control the flow of verbal messages. We often regulate and manage communication by using certain form of nonverbal behavior. We nod our head in agreement to indicate to our communication partner that we agree and that he or she should continue talking or we have direct eye contact with someone to let him or her know the channels are open.Thus, nonverbal messages function in six ways. Sometimes the functions occur separately, and sometimes they occur in combinations. They occur through multiple channels, and often they occur at the same moment. Without them, we should have a very difficult time communicating.2.3 Characteristics of Nonverbal Communication Nonverbal communication is a form of human communication, and that the nonverbal form of communication is more complex than the term denotes. It has several important characteristics:(1) Unintentional. The sender may be unaware that he or she is sending a nonverbal message and, consequently, may not be aware of the impact that message may have. (2) Reliable. Since the message may be transmitted unconsciously, the sender will not have planned it. That is why when receivers caught between two discrepant messages; they are more inclines to believe the nonverbal one.(3) Present. Neither oral nor written communication exists without nonverbal communication. Nonverbal communication may be shared between people or within a person.(4) Less precise but more elusive, intangible. There are no dictionaries or formal sets of rules to provide a systematic list of the meanings of a cultures nonverbal message.(5) Subtle and convert. Nonverbal communication messages function as a “silent language”. Therefore, people process nonverbal messages, both the sending and receiving of them, with less awareness than they process verbal message.(6) Continuous and natural. They tend to blur into one another. Nonverbal communication is ongoing and does not need a verbal component to have meaning. Even the absence of nonverbal behaviors can send a message. 2.4 Classification of Nonverbal CommunicationNonverbal communication covers a wide scope and consists of abundant subcodes- those different component parts of the overall nonverbal code- including touch and space, physical appearance, gestures, vocalic, and covert body/temporal communication (Hickson & Stacks, 1989: 19). Accordingly, researchers may adopt various means to classify it. For conducting contrastive study, this thesis divides nonverbal communication into five categories2.4.1 Body LanguageBody language, also called body movements, body behavior and so on, refers to all expressions and movement that send communication message. The study of body language or how movement communicates is called “Kinestics”, which includes gesture (such as head gesture, facial expressions, eye contact, arm gesture, hand gesture, leg movement, etc.), posture (such as standing posture, sitting posture, walking posture, etc.), and touch (such as hand shake, kiss, hug, etc.); 2.4.2 ParalanguageParalanguage also called paralinguistic features, which involves the linguistic elements of speech, is how something is said and not the actual meaning of the spoken words. Paralanguage cues assist us in drawing conclusions about an individuals emotional state, socioeconomic states, height, weight, age, intelligence, race, regional background, and educational level.Paralanguage has two components. One is voice qualities, such as pitch, range, resonance, lip control. Another is vocalizations, which involves three kinds: vocal characterizers; vocal qualifiers, and vocal segregates. 2.4.3 Time LanguageTime language, which refers to how we give meaning to time communicates to others, is a powerful element of nonverbal communication. The study of time language is call “Chronemics”, which concerns concepts of time and the rules that govern its use.There are many cultural variations regarding how people understand and use time. Besides, a cultures use of time can also provide valuable clues to how members of that culture value and respond to time. In America, people usually say; “Time is money” and “He who hesitates is lost”. All Chinese know the Confucian proverb “Think three times before you act”. There sayings reflects how differently each of there cultures perceives time.2.4.4 Space LanguageSpace language is also called interpersonal distance, or proxemics. Edward Hall coined the term “proxemics” to refer to the study of how we use space in the communication process and the way that we use space to govern the personal actions and behavior of others.All cultures are organizes in some spatial pattern, which can reveal the character of the people in that culture. There are three important aspects of space language: personal space, territoriality, and spatial orientations.2.4.5 Object LanguageObject language generally refers to various kinds of artifacts with communicative functions, such as dress, cosmetics, ornament, furniture, olfactory messages etc, which can send nonverbal messages and display the users personality and cultural characteristic. In accordance with Tubbs and Moss, objectics is concerned with every kind of physical object from clothing we wear to the food we serve to our dinner guests.III. Differences of Nonverbal Communication between Chinese and American Different people have different ways of making nonverbal communication. “Body language”, like our verbal language, is also a part of our culture. But not all body language means the same thing in different cultures. For example: different people have different ideas about the proper distance between people conversing; the appropriateness of physical contact varies with different cultures; one could draw up quite a list of “rules” about eye contact: to look or not to look; when to look and how long to look; who and who not to look at; smiles and laughter usually convey friendliness, approval, satisfaction, pleasure, joy and merriment, and, this is generally true in China as well as the English-speaking countries, however, there are situations when some Chinese will laugh that will cause negative reactions by westerners; gestures can be particularly troublesome, for a slight difference in making the gesture itself can mean something quite different from that intended, and, a wrong interpretation of a gesture can arouse quite unexpected reactions and so on. So in order to communicate effectively in a foreign language, one should know also the gestures, body movements, mannerisms and etc. that accompany a particular language. Here, we research into three elements of body language: gesture (head gesture, facial expressions, eye contact, hand gesture and smile and laughter), posture (walking posture, standing posture, and sitting posture), and touch (ten distinctions concerning touching behaviors).3.1 GestureGesture refers to the use of movement of the body (our arms, legs, torsos and especially hands) to express a certain message. It is estimated that the human body can produce over 270,000 discrete gestures (Du et. al, 2004: 223).Care should be taken in using gestures because different cultures interpret gestures in different ways. Understanding human behavior is tricky stuff. No two people behave in precisely the same way. Nor do people from the same culture all perform exactly the same gestures and body language uniformly.As researchers have studied this field extensively in recent years and have developed body language dictionaries such as A Dictionary of Gestures, The Nonverbal Dictionary of Gestures, signs & Body Language Cues and so on, here this paper just probes into the distinctive Chinese and American gestures in common daily use.3.1.1 Head GestureChinese and American head gesture shares a number of similarities. For example: nodding the head up and down means yes, I agree; shaking the head side to side means no; heading forward shows an interest in the conversation; heading backward shows lack of interest and so on.As to the differences, a nod of the head in China can function as greeting and beckoning someone to come here, while the same function performed by the Americans is a raise of the head. Patting on head means differently in these two cultures. Occasionally, Chinese adults may pat the head of children to show affection; patting the head of a teenager or an adult would cause displeasure and can be insulting. Americans patting on others head is just for giving comfort, consolation or encouragement; and also for showing affection.A unique head gesture in China tip the head backward and audibly suck air in through the teeth means “no” or “something is very difficult” and has function of pausing to rethink. Also there are some head gestures used in America but seldom seen in China: scratching the head means thinking or confused or skeptical; chin stroke, tapping the head with forefinger shows contemplation; hand cutting across the top of the head shows impatience; head switching to one side with rush or chin pointing to a certain direction functions as beckoning someone to come here or pointing direction.3.1.2 Facial ExpressionsWe constantly read expressions from peoples face. In fact, facial cues are the single most important source of nonverbal communication. (Tubbs & Moss, 1991:151)Facial expressions have some own features: they are innate and universal. Therefore, the expressions for happiness, sadness, disgust, fear, anger, and surprise (the six basic emotions) are recognized by most cultural groups as having the same meaning. However, some variations also exist. Some facial expressions and their interpretations may vary from one culture to another.Generally speaking, Chinese people are more self-controlled, especially in formal, public occasions, and when communicate with strangers and foreigners, they tend to control their emotions. When in down spirits (sad, angry, contemptuous and so on), Chinese people usually try to sustain a neutral expression. The whole face is on a loose state, forehead and eyebrow are equable, lips close naturally, and eyes open looking forward-such kind of looks is considered to be a neutral expression. Differently, the Americans may show in their expressions immediately when they are in the same spirits. Controlling ones bad mood properly is considered mature and well-educated in China. Therefore, they think the Americans lack of control their emotions as a