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Production and Marketing of Chestnuts in the Southeastern United States1 Robert C. Hochmuth, Robert D. Wallace, Peter J. Van Blokland, and Jeffrey G. Williamson 2 This is a revised copy of the original document, An Introduction to Production, Marketing, and Economics of Growing Chestnuts in the South East United Sates, by R.D. Wallace and P.J. VanBlockland. 1989. University of Florida, Dept of Food Resource Economics. Staff report. #354 Introduction Chestnuts (Castanea sp.) are represented by several species of trees in the beech family (Fagaceae). The chestnut is native to warm, temperate areas the Northern Hemis phere. The United States is one of the few nations in the world that can grow chestnuts and does not have a significant commercial chestnut industry. Because the United States has such a small (less than 1 percent of world production) chestnut industry, chestnuts are imported to the United States in quantities with total annual value exceeding $20 million. Development of new chestnuts cultivars, advances in propagation, and cultural techniques now allow for expansion of the commercial chestnut industry in the United States. Chestnuts may make a viable alternative crop for small farmers in Florida who are looking to diversify their operations. History Few tree crops have as much historical importance as a food source throughout the world as do chestnuts. Chestnuts were one of the earliest tree crops to be domesticated and were even mentioned in Chinese poetry more than 5000 years ago. The European settlers of North America found the New World was virtually one solid chestnut forest. The American chestnut was once among the most common trees in the eastern forest, from Maine to Georgia and west to the Mississippi. This amazingly useful tree offers rot-resistant lumber, which was used for several items, from fence posts to furniture. The chestnut tree was also a source of tannin, in addition to its beautiful crop of nuts. But the accidental introduction of the chestnut blight (Cryphonectria parasitica) from the Orient in 1904 killed almost every American chestnut in the United States in less than 40 years. The loss of the chestnut in the United States is considered one of the greatest botanical disasters in Western history. The chestnut industry is highly developed in Europe and in the Orient. The Republic of Korea and China are the top two countries for chestnut production； together these countries produce more than 40 percent of the worlds chestnuts. Other major chestnut-producing countries include Italy, Turkey, Bolivia, Japan, Spain, and Portugal. The primary exporters of chestnuts to the United States are Italy, China, and The Republic of Korea. Chestnut imports to the United States increased from 4,500 metric tons in 2003 to 5,400 metric tons in 2004, an increase that indicates the growing demand for chestnuts among U.S. consumers. The annual value of chestnuts imported to the United States is more than $20 million. The development of new American x Chinese hybrid chestnut cultivars - which are resistant to chestnut blight and produce large, sweet nuts - have helped to make possible expansion of the domestic chestnut industry in the United States, including in Florida. The new chestnut cultivars have high-quality characteristics that compete favorably with the imported nuts. However, the commercial U.S. chestnut industry is relatively new； most growers have less than 10 years of experience. Major states for chestnut production include California, Oregon, Washington, Michigan, Florida, Ohio, and Virginia. Chestnut Economics Chestnuts can be a productive and profitable orchard crop. Trees begin to bear after three to five years, and improved cultivars can, at maturity, produce from 1,000 - 1,500 pounds or more per acre every year. The nuts bring from $0.75-2.50 per pound wholesale, (depending on nut size) and $2-5.00 per pound retail, depending on the market. Marketing of domestic chestnuts has been primarily through local or direct market sales methods. Some American growers advertise fresh chestnuts via the Internet at prices of more than $10 per pound in small quantities, but this price includes FedEx or UPS shipping and handling. Local, direct-to-consumer sales may be up to $4.00 or 5.00 per pound, but such prices decrease considerably in sales to brokers, wholesalers, grocery chains, and other large markets. To move American-grown chestnuts in large quantities, prices must to be competitive with imported nuts, and quality of American production must be superior to the quality to which foreign wholes ale buyers and their American customers are accustomed. Chestnuts crops grown in the United States have the advantage of reaching American markets earlier than imported chestnuts, with better quality control, and without the costs of international shipping. However, the key to success in moving large quantities of chestnuts is through marketing, education of the consumer and distributors, and the development of relationships with knowledgeable persons in food-distribution services. Many opportunities for marketing that did not exist in the past for small growers are now available through the Internet, but targeted marketing efforts to the food industry can also be very valuable. Chestnut Species and Hybrids Four species of chestnuts and several of their hybrids are grown in the United States today. American chestnuts (Castanea dentata) have small, sweet nuts, upright growth form, and are highly susceptible to chestnut blight. The European chestnut (Catanea sativa) is also blight susceptible and can only be grown in blight-free areas. European chestnuts trees have an upright tree form, and the nuts from European chestnuts can be quite good from some cultivars. However, many of the cultivars and seedlings produce nuts that are bland or bitter in taste and difficult to peel. Chinese chestnuts (Castanea mollissima) are highly blight resistant, and some cultivars produce nuts of good size and sweet taste that are also easy to peel. Chinese chestnut trees are sometimes upright in growth form, but many are low, spreading and multiple branched at the ground. Japanese chestnuts (Castanea crenata) are small, spreading, blight-resistant trees that produce large, poor tasting nuts. Japanese chestnuts are mostly used for hybridization. Chinkapins (several species) produce small, sweet nuts (one per burr), are often of shrubby form and are not used for commercial nut production. The members of the genus Castanea are very closely related and interhybridize readily. Hybrids offer some of the best potential for promising commercial cultivars. In Europe, most chestnut breeding has been done with Japanese x European crosses. In Japan and Korea, the majority of the commercial production today is with Chinese x Japanese hybrid cultivars. In the United States, some of the recently developed American x Chinese hybrids offer the combination of characteristics that make for excellent commercial cultivars for Florida (Fig 1). Figure 1. American x Chinese hybrid chestnut tree. Click thumbnail to enlarge. Nut Quality and Grades Size A primary concern in any cultivar is the size of the nuts produced. For marketing to a fresh or pre-packaged market, large size is required (Fig 2). While the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) has not adopted any standards for grades of chestnuts, the following size standards were proposed by the USDA in 2001 (Table 1). Figure 2. Customers prefer larger individual nuts. Click thumbnail to enlarge. Importers have sometimes used size standards based on the number of nuts per pound (Table 2). Nuts smaller than 40 count per pound are difficult to distribute through mass marketing systems (brokers and grocery chains) because of the American desire for larger chestnut sizes (Fig 3). Smaller chestnuts are generally less desirable in the American market and bring a lower price. If, however, the chestnuts are used for drying, pureeing, flour or candies, size is not as important. Figure 3. Various nut sizes among chestnut cultivars. Click thumbnail to enlarge. Taste Taste is also very important. Some cultivars have a higher sugar content, even raw. The carbohydrates in chestnuts turn to sugar as the nuts mature and dry. Curing is important before cooking chestnuts, to bring out the flavor of the nuts. The American chestnut is quite sweet, as are chinkapins. Some of the Chinese chestnuts and the American hybrids have very sweet nuts. Some of the European and Chinese varieties are, by comparison, not as sweet. Ease of Peeling The third nut characteristic of importance is ease of peeling the nut. The pellicle or “skin” that surrounds the kernel is bitter and must be removed before eating. In some types of chestnuts, the pellicle is ingrown into the rough surface of the kernel, which makes the nuts difficult to peel and, therefore, poor eatin g quality. Many European chestnuts have this undesirable characteristic. The French distinguish between types of chestnuts based on the ease of peeling. Marrons, a chestnut native to the Mediterranean, have smooth-surfaced kernels that are easy to peel, and the chtaignes having an ingrown pellicle. The marrons command a much higher price in the stores in France and in the United States than do the chtaignes, but both types of chestnut are shipped to the United States where they are popular among American consumers. The American and Chinese chestnuts and their hybrids more frequently have smooth kernels and are easier to peel. Ease of peeling is important in commercial processing, as well as for acceptance by the consumer； a little bit of the kernel is lost in the peeling process, and chestnuts that are easily peeled require much less time and expense to remove the pellicles. Propagation The predominant type of chestnut trees sold in the United States today is Chinese chestnut seedlings. Seedling Chinese chestnuts are generally variable in nut size, taste, tree form and productivity. The trees bear in 3-8 years, much later than grafted stock. The trees are, in some cases, more vigorous than grafted trees and more cold hardy. Most existing plantings of ches tnuts in the United States are seedlings. Wide variability in the quality of the crop reduces the marketability of chestnuts. Grafting and budding are the most common ways of propagation for clones of chestnuts. Chestnuts can sometimes be affected by root stock/scion incompatibility. Factors causing this incompatibility are both ecological and genetic. Scions grafted onto rootstock with differing isoenzymes may show poor vigor, inconsistent crops, and sometimes death of the scion above the graft. Grafts fa il more in very cold climates or after severe heat or drought stress. Location and Site Chestnuts can be grown in a wide variety of climates and environments, but the range that is suitable for growing peaches is often considered to be suitable for growing many of the chestnut cultivars. Chestnuts also grow well throughout the areas in Florida used for pecan production. The best conditions for the production of nuts include a warm and relatively long growing season and a mild winter. Irrigation is recommended for maximum nut production and is especially important in initial orchard establishment. Though chestnuts flower late, spring frosts can damage new growing shoots, and low-lying frost pockets should be avoided. Chestnuts prefer a well drained, upland sandy loam of pH 5.0-6.5. The soil should not be subject to standing water and/or periodic flooding. If mechanical harvesters are to be used, too much slope in the field can create difficulties in using the machinery, and wet soil conditions with autumn rains can inhibit easy movement through the orchard. North Florida is especially suited to growing chestnuts. Areas from Orlando north through the Florida Panhandle include chestnut plantings that have been growing for more than 40 years. Orchard Planting and Production Orchard spacing varies greatly depending upon the cultivar. However, 20X20 (108 trees/acre) is common. This spacing creates the optimum balance between close packing of the trees to increase early production of the orchard and the need to thin trees as the crowns start to touch. Chestnuts require a well managed supply of moisture and fertilizer. Drip irrigation is recommended to conserve water and effectively provide water to the trees only, rather than to weeds in non-crop areas between rows. Fertilization programs should be based on a soil test. However, a common application for chestnut trees is 1 pound of 10-10-10 or similar analysis per year of tree age up to 15 pounds per tree applied in the spring. Fertigation, or frequent feeding through the drip system, is efficient and promotes growth with less loss of nutrients from leaching. Chestnuts are heavy feeders, and nitrogen is especially important to proper rapid growth. Like many nut trees, chestnuts are slow to start and require 2-3 years to become well established. Burrs should be removed during the first three years to promote better tree growth. Most chestnut orchards are managed in a manner similar to pecans, with clean cultivation down the rows and sod cover crops between rows. Young chestnut orchards can be intercropped with row crops, such as perennial peanut, clover, hay or a small fruit crop until chestnut harvest begins in about five years after planting. Pruning Chestnuts bear on the bisexual catkins (slim, cylindrical flower clus ters), which are located near the base of the current years shoot growth. The new flushes of growth occur in areas of sunlight, at the tips of branches. Pruning should maximize the amount of sunlight available to a tree. Open-center trees (like a peach tree) allow sunlight into the vase-shaped middle, as well as the tops and sides. The European orchards and the Japanese and Korean orchards are pruned in this fashion. The central-leader tree - produced by a pruning system commonly used in apples, pecans and walnuts - creates a cone-shaped tree that has bearing surface all around the outside of the cone. This method is also acceptable for use with chestnuts. Upright-form trees respond better to mechanical shaking to remove the nuts. Very spreading trees may be more difficult to shake off the nuts because the branches tend to droop and do not translate the vibration of the shaker. Evidence also suggests a smaller tree may be more desirable than those that are too tall for ease of harvesting. Pruning, along with genetic characteristics, will be important in determining final tree shape and size. Many small-tree chestnut cultivars have produced well in Florida with very little pruning. Orchard Pest Management Chestnuts have a few serious pests. Chestnuts blight (Cryphonectria parasitica) is largely eliminated by planting blight-resistance varieties. Only blight-resistant trees should be considered for planting in Florida. Ink disease, a phytophthora root-rot fungus, has been a problem in the southeastern United States, but can be controlled by orchard floor management, keeping the soil well drained and not subject to wet conditions, which promote infection. Ink diease has been a problem in Europe and on the Pacific Coast of the United States, in areas that have long, wet winters. Deer and squirrels can be common wildlife pests in chestnuts. Deer fences may be necessary if deer are a local pest, and requent harvesting of the nuts may be required if squirrels or deer are problems. The chestnut weevil (Curculio caryatryes) lays its eggs in the developing nuts, and the mature nuts have a worm growing inside at harvest, causing the nuts to become unmarketable. The weevil spends the winter on the ground under the trees as a pupa. Few pesticides are labeled for control of chestnut weevil, so sanitation practices are critical. After the harvest is complete, collect all extra burrs, nuts, and leaf debris and destroy by burning if possible. The oriental chestnut gall wasp (Dryocosmus kuriphilus) is a serious pest that forms a gall in the growing chestnut shoots, thus stopping nut production. Biological and chemical controls are as yet ineffective for this wasp, but some Korean varieties show resistance to the wasp. It is highly recommended to not move chestnut trees or material from areas where gall wasp infestations occur. Pollination and Nut Formation Chestnuts are monoecious； both male and female flowers are borne on the current season shoots of the same tree (Fig 4). Flowers emerge on the tips of the current seasons growth, after the leaves have fully expanded, and late enough to avoid any late-spring frosts (early to mid May in Florida). Chestnuts are self sterile (will not self pollinate) and, therefore, require a pollinizer. Incomplete pollination will result in only one or two nuts forming inside the burr； the remaining nuts will not fill out. Chestnuts are primarily wind pollinated although insects may also aid in pollination. Trees should be planted at a ratio of at least 8:1 cultivar to pollinizers. Grafted trees begin to bear in two to four years, and seedlings will bear in five to seven years. If seedlings are used as pollinizers, delay in the production of the grafted trees will likely occur because pollenizer trees do not flower sufficiently in the early years (the third to fifth year after planting). Figure 4. Male and female flowers on the same tree. Click thumbnail to enlarge. Nut development and filling out occurs primarily in the last two to three weeks before ripening (Fig 5). The nut gains the majority of its weight during this time, and since the nuts are 40 percent water and 40 percent carbohydrate, a good supply of water, either from seasonal rains or irrigation, is crucial for maximizing nut production. Time from flowering to harvest varies from 110-150 days, depending on the cultivar. As the nuts ripen, the burr begins to split open, and the nuts are released from the burr or the burr falls from the tree with the nuts still inside (Fig 6). Figure 5. Burr (center), mature chestnuts (left) and immature chestnuts (right). Click thumbnail to enlarge. Figure 6. Chestnut burrs developing near harvest season. Click thumbnail to enlarge. Harvesting and Storage Harvesting of chestnuts is traditionally done with hand labor, which, in small orchards, may be more efficient than mechanical harvesting. Because chestnuts are high in carbohydrates, they decay quickly and must be harvested every two to three days to eliminate the amount of the time the nuts spend on the ground. Mechanical harvesting of chestnuts is much the same as in the pecan, almond, or walnut industry. Shakers are successful as a means of removing the burrs from the trees. The nut and burrs can be collected, either in a catch frame or in mesh nets on the ground underneath the tree, or the nuts can be picked up with various mechanical pecan harvesters or harvesters designed for other nut crops. Once collected from the orchard, the nuts and burrs are separated, and the nuts go directly into a cooler. The burrs are run through a deburring device, such as those used for removing the husks of walnuts, or a pecan cleaner. Green burrs with undeveloped nuts (still white) can be held separately until the nuts ripen in several days. Nuts are washed and then graded by size and stored in tightly woven, but breathable mesh bags at 32 degrees F and 85 percent humidity. Chestnuts will last up to six months when stored under these conditions. At warmer temperatures, the nuts will decay faster because of the higher biological activity than at lower temperatures. High humidity is required because the nuts will dehydrate and lose their quality in most coolers. A quick dip (45-60 minutes) in hot water (125o F) can kill many of the decaying organisms and the chestnut weevils larva. After the hot-water dip, the nuts are cooled in cold water and then stored at 32o F. Processing Whole chestnuts can be peeled and canned or frozen. This processing generally increases the shelf life of the product over the fresh nuts and, more importantly, lowers the amount of consumer labor and time in preparation. The value added to a peeled and packed product is substantial and may be important in increasing the market size of chestnuts, especially increasing the use of the nuts beyond the traditional chestnut season, Thanksgiving and Christmas. Prepackaging is a very important consideration in adapting chestnuts to the U.S. market. Machinery is available to mechanically peel and package chestnuts. Peeled and frozen chestnuts will retain their taste up to two years. Chestnuts can also be dried and ground into flour. In Europe and the Orient, chestnut flour has long been highly prized for its sweet taste in making breads, pastas, and pastries. Specialty chestnut products are becoming more commonly available in U.S. markets and through Internet sales. Marketing The well developed distribution system used for many nuts grown in the United States is also available for chestnuts grown in this country. Growers with large, high-quality chestnuts can compete favorably with imported chestnut crops because domestic growers can reach the U.S. market earlier and deliver a fresher product and, thus, sell at a premium price. There are many potential markets for high-quality chestnuts grown in the United States. Gourmet and health-food markets and restaurants offer outlets where consumers are typically interested in trying and learning about new food products. Ethnic French, Italian and Oriental markets already carry chestnut products and are interested to find local, high-quality sources of chestnuts. Almost all grocery chains carry imported chestnuts at Thanksgiving and Christmas. Local community farmers markets are becoming much more popular in Florida and also serve as outlets to market nuts. Internet sales can also be a successful method to sell chestnuts and chestnut products. Nutrition The chestnut is a highly nutritious food. Unlike most nuts, which are high in fat (pecans and walnuts), chestnuts have only a trace of fat and one-third the calories of other nuts, such as peanuts or cashews. Chestnuts are also the only nut with a significant amount of vitamin C and no cholesterol. The protein of chestnuts is of excellent quality and comparable in amino-acid content to that of an egg. Chestnuts are considered “a grain that grows on a tree,” being similar nutritionally to brown rice. Chestnuts are delicious and can be prepared in a variety of ways, including roasted on the fire or steamed for use in soups, stews, souffls, hors douerves, stuffings and desserts. Chestnuts may be dried and made into pasta or sweet flour for pastries and breads. Pureed or candied, chestnuts are a favorite dessert all across Europe. This diversity of uses and high nutritional quality from a perennial tree crop have made the chestnut a popular food source, including throughout history and in many different cultures around the world. More Information For additional documents and links regarding chestnut production and marketing, visit the fruits and nuts page of Floridas Small Farms Website (/crops/fruits_and_nuts/nut_crops.html). Tables Table 1. USDA standards for grades of chestnuts proposed in 2001. Size Classification Minimum Diameter (inches) Maximum Diameter (inches) Mammoth 1 3/8 No Maximum Jumbo 1 1/4 1 1/2 Giant 1 1/8 1 3/8 Large 1 1 1/4 Table 2. Examples of chestnut size standards based on number of nuts per pound. Grade Number of Nuts/Pound A 36-39 AA 27-30 AAA 22-24 AAAA 19-20 AAAAA 18 or fewer Footnotes 1. This document is HS1155, one of a series of the Horticultural Sciences Department, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida. First published in EDIS July 2009. Reviewed August 2012. This is a revised copy of the original document, An Introduction to Production, Marketing, and Economics of Growing Chestnuts in the Southern United Sates, by R.D. Wallace and P.J. VanBlockland. 1989. University of Florida, Dept of Food Resource Economics. Staff report. #354. Visit the EDIS website at . 2. Robert C. Hochmuth, multi-county Extension agent, Suwannee Valley Agricultural Extension Center； Robert D. Wallace, commercial nurseryman, Chestnut Hill Nursery, Alachua, FL； Peter J. Van Blokland, professor, Food and Resource Economics, Indian River Research and Education Center, and Jeffrey G. Williamson, professor, Horticultural Sciences Department, University of Florida. Gainesville, FL 32611. The Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (IFAS) is an Equal Opportunity Institution authorized to provide research, educational information and other services only to individuals and institutions that function w ith non-discrimination w ith respect to race, creed, color, religion, age, disability, sex, sexual orientation, marital status, national origin, political opinions or affiliations. For more information on obtaining other UF/IFAS Extension publications, contact your countys UF/IFAS Extension office. U.S. Department of Agriculture, UF/IFAS Extension Service, University of Florida, IFAS, Florida A & M University Cooperative Extension Program, and Boards of County Commissioners Cooperating. Nick T. Place, dean for UF/IFAS Extension. 美国板栗产业 罗伯特 C.霍赫穆特、罗伯特华莱士、彼得 J.van Blokland 和 Jeffrey G.威廉姆森 这是原始文件的修订副本，介绍了生产，销售，和栗子生长在东南亚美国的情况，通过RD 华莱士和 PJ VanBlockland。佛罗里达大学的 1989 年，食品资源经济系。工作人员报告。 序言： 栗子（板栗属）是由几个品种的树木在山毛榉科（壳斗科）的表示。板栗原产北半球的地暖，温带地区。 美国是少数几个国家在世界上能生长栗子和不具有显著的商业板栗产业之一。因为美国有板栗产业这样一个小的（世界产量的不到 1）产业，进口到美国的栗子的数量与每年的总价值超逾 2 千万元。 新的栗子品种开发，先进的传播，文化的技术现在允许美国扩大在商业板栗产业。栗子可就在佛罗里达州小农谁正在寻找他们的业务多元化，一个可行的替代作物。 历史： 农作物有很多的历史重要性，因为世界各地的食物来源如栗子。栗子是最早木本作物被驯化了，甚至在中国诗歌中提到 5000 余年前的一个。北美的欧洲殖民者发现的新大陆几乎是一个坚实的板栗林。美国栗树曾经在东部森林中最常见的树木中，从缅因州到乔治亚州，西至密西西比河。 这个令人惊讶的有用的树提供防腐性木材，这是用于几个项目，从栅栏柱到家具。板栗树也是单一的来源，除了其美丽的坚果作物。但是从东方在 1904 年意外引入的栗疫病（栗疫病菌），在不到 40 年杀害了几乎所有的美国栗树在美国。在美国板栗的损失被认为是西方历史上最伟大的植 物灾害之一。 板栗产业高度发达的欧洲，在世界的东方。韩国和中国是板栗产业发达的两个国家 ；同时这些国家产生超过 40的世界栗子。其他主要的板栗生产国包括意大利，土耳其，玻利维亚，日本，西班牙和葡萄牙。栗子对美国的主要出口国是意大利，中国和韩国。 板栗进口到美国的 4,500 吨增加到 2003 年的 5,400 万吨， 2004 年同比增长，表明栗子在美国的消费者的需求在不断增长。进口到美国的栗子每年的价值超过 2000 万美元。 这是抗栗疫病和生产大，甜坚果 - - 新美国 x 中国杂交板栗品种的发展有助于使国内板栗产业在美国可 能的扩展，包括在佛罗里达州。新板栗品种具有毫不逊色与进口坚果竞争的高品质特性。然而，美国商业板栗产业是相对较新 ；大多数种植者有不到 10 年的经验。为板栗生产大国，包括加利福尼亚州，俄勒冈州，华盛顿州，密歇根州，佛罗里达州，俄亥俄州和弗吉尼亚州。 板栗经济学： 栗子可以是生产力和盈利果园作物。树木开始后三到五年来承担，而改良品种可以在到期日，从 1000 - 1,500 斤以上的产量每亩每年。螺母从 $0.75-2.50 元一斤批发，（根据螺母的大小）和 $2-5.00 元一斤零售，供给取决于市场。 国产栗子的市场一直主 要通过本地或直接的市场销售方式。一些美国种植者通过互联网在超过 10 美元每磅小批量的价格做广告的新鲜栗子，但这个价格包括联邦快递或 UPS 运费和手续费。本地的，直接面向消费者的销售可能高达 $4.00 或 5.00 元一斤，但这样的价格在销售大幅下降到经纪人，批发商，连锁超市等大型市场。 美国种植栗子数量大，价格必须要与进口坚果竞争力，和美国生产的质量必须优于质素的外国买家，他们的美国客户都习惯。 在美国种植栗子作物有达到美国市场早于进口的栗子，用更好的质量控制，并没有国际航运的成本优势。然而，在移动大量栗子的成功的 关键是通过市场营销，消费者和经销商的教育，并与有识之士在食品配送服务关系的发展。营销是没有过去存在的小种植者很多机会，现在可以通过互联网，但有针对性的市场推广力度，食品行业也可以是非常有价值的。 板栗品种的杂交： 生长在美国的四种栗子和他们几个杂交种品种： 美国栗子（板栗齿。）有小的，甜的坚果，直立生长形式，极易受到栗疫病。 欧洲栗（ Catanea）也枯萎病易感，且只能在疫病非疫区生长。欧洲板栗树有一个直立的树的形式，并从欧洲栗子的坚果可以是相当不错的一些品种。然而，许多品种及种苗生产坚果的味道平淡，或 苦，难以剥离。 中国板栗（板栗）是高度抗枯萎病，有些品种产生良好的规模和甜蜜味道也很容易剥离的坚果。中国板栗树，有时在生长形态挺拔，但很多是低，传播和多支在地上。 日本栗子（板栗籽）粒小，传播，产生较大的，可怜的品尝坚果抗枯萎病树。日本栗子大多用于杂交。 Chinkapins（数种）生产小型，甜坚果（每毛刺之一），通常是灌木状的形式，不用于商业螺母生产。 在栗属的成员的关系非常密切和杂交的容易。杂交提供了一些有前途的商业品种中最有潜力的。在欧洲，大部分板栗育种已经完成，日本 x 欧洲的杂交品种。在日本和韩 国，多数商业化生产的今天与中国 x 日本杂交品种。 在美国，一些最近开发的美国 x 中国混合动力车提供的特点，优秀的商业品种为佛罗里达的组合。 图 1。 美国 x 中国杂交板栗树。 螺母的质量和档次 ： 大小： 在任何品种的一个主要关注的是生产螺母的大小。对于营销到一个新的或预先包装市场中，大尺寸是必需的（图 2）。虽然美国农业部门（ USDA）没有采用任何标准的栗子大小，在 2001 年提出由美国农业部以下尺寸的标准（表 1）。 图 2。 客户喜欢较大的个体坚果。 进口商有时用于基于每磅坚果的数目（表 2）大小的标准。坚果超过每磅 40 支小的都很难通过大规模的营销系统（经纪和食品杂货连锁店）来分发，因为美国的渴望更大的板栗大小（图 3）中。小栗子一般都是在美国市场不太理想的，并带来了更低的价格。然而，如果该栗子用于烘干，面粉或糖果，大小并不重要。 图 3。 各种螺母尺寸板栗品种之一。 味道： 味道也很重要。有些品种具有较高的含糖量，甚至生吃。栗子中的碳水化合物转成糖的坚果成熟和干燥。栗子烹调前固化是很重要的，衬托出坚果的味道。美国栗树是相当甜美的。一些中国的栗子和美国杂 交种有非常甜美的坚果。一些欧洲和中国的品种，通过比较，而不是甜的。 易于剥离： 重要性的第三螺母的特点是容易剥离的螺母。该薄膜或“皮肤” ，围绕内核是苦，吃之前必须拆除。在某些类型的栗子，胶片被嵌到内核中，这使得螺母难以剥离，因此，不良的饮食质量的粗糙表面。许多欧洲栗子有这样的不良特性。 在法国区分栗子的基础上，容易剥离的类型之间。栗子，栗子原产于地中海，有表面光滑的内核，很容易剥离，并具有向内生长的薄膜。该种栗子以更高的价格在法国和美国的商店出售，但是这两种类型的板栗运到美国，他们是美国消费者的青睐。 美国和中国的栗子，其杂交种往往有流畅的内核和更容易剥离。 容易剥离是重要的商业处理，以及用于接受消费者 ；内核一点点消失在剥离过程中，那很容易去皮栗子需要少得多的时间和费用，除去药膜。 繁殖： 主要类型在今天的美国销售的板栗树是中国板栗苗。中国苗栗子一般都是可变的螺母尺寸，口味，树形态和生产力。该树结的 3-8 年，远远晚于嫁接树种。在某些情况下，比嫁接树更耐寒更加旺盛。栗子在美国的大多数现有的种植面积是苗。在作物的质量很大的可变性降低板栗的销路。 嫁接和芽接繁殖是对栗子的克隆最常见的方式。 栗子有时会受到砧 木 /接穗不亲。造成这种不兼容的因素是生态和遗传。接穗嫁接到砧木具有不同的同工酶可能会显示活力差，不一致的农作物，甚至死亡的移植物上面的接穗。移植物在非常寒冷的气候或严重发热或干旱后失败了。 生长环境： 栗子可以生长在各种气候条件和环境中，但适合种植桃子的范围通常被认为是适于生长的许多板栗的栽培品种。栗子也遍及用于山核桃生产领域在佛罗里达州生长良好。 生产坚果的最佳条件包括温暖和相对较长的生长季节和温和的冬天。灌溉是建议最大的螺母生产尤其重要的果园初步建立。虽然栗子花下旬，春季霜冻可能会损坏新的成长新芽，并应 避免低洼霜口袋。 栗子喜欢 pH值 5.0-6.5，排水良好的高地沙壤土。土壤不应该受到积水和 /或定期泛滥。如果机械收割机的使用，在野外太多斜坡在使用机器造成困难，而且潮湿的土壤条件，秋雨可以通过果园抑制方便移动。北佛罗里达特别适合于不断增长的栗子。从奥兰多向北穿过佛罗里达狭长地带的领域包括板栗种植已成长为超过 40 年。 果园种植和生产： 树苗间距差异很大取决于品种。然而， 20*20 （ 108 株 /亩）是常见的。这个间距产生了树木的紧密堆积之间的最佳平衡，以提高早期生产的果园和需要薄树的作为冠开始触摸。 栗子需要水分和肥料的管理良好的供应。滴灌建议节约用水，有效地提供水源的树木而已，而不是杂草在非作物区行之间。施肥方案应根据土壤测试。然而，一个常见的应用栗树是 1磅 10-10-10 或每树龄高达 15 磅每棵树在春天应用年类似的分析。灌溉施肥，或频繁通过滴灌系统饲养，是有效的，与营养物质的浸出损失较少促进增长。栗子是沉重的馈线和氮是正确的快速增长尤其重要。像许多槟榔树，栗子启动缓慢，需要 2-3 年才能完全建立。毛刺应在第一个三年中删除，以更好地促进树木生长。 大多数板栗果园类似山核桃的方式管理，用干净的栽培下两行之间 的行和草皮覆盖作物。年轻的板栗果园可间作一行作物，如花生常年，三叶草，草或小水果作物，直到板栗收获开始在 5 年后种植。 修剪： 栗子承担对两性的柳絮（纤细，圆柱形的花簇） ，这是位于目前的年新梢生长的基地附近。增长的新丫发生在太阳光的地方，在树枝的顶端。修剪应尽量阳光提供给树的数量。开放式中心树（如桃树），让阳光照进花瓶形的中间，以及顶部和两侧。欧洲的果园和日本和韩国的果园修剪以这种方式。 苹果，山核桃，胡桃常用修剪系统产生 - 创建一个锥形树已经支承表面都绕锥的外侧。这种方法也可以接受的栗子使用。 直立的树 木更好