曼哈顿GMAT系列SC笔记

精品文库一、语法和语义 Grammar and Meaning 1. Grammar: Does the sentence adhere to the rules of Standard Written English? 2. Meaning: Does the sentence clearly indicate the authors intended meaning? Meaning Errors1. Choose your words Eg: right: The court declared that Jack must pay full damages Wrong: The court declared that Jack should pay full damagesexplanation: on the GMAT exam, the word” should” only mean “moral obligation”, something the court cannot impose.2. Place your words3. Match your words (主语和谓语在一起要有意义)4. Avoid Redundancy a. GMAT考试中很常见的一种累赘错误是在一个句子中使用了两个意思重复的词语。例如：The value of the stock rose by a 10% increase . Right: The value of the stock rose by 10% b. 要注意时间的表达词语。尤其是当一个时间表达未被划线，或者两个表达相同时间的词语看起来不同练习：1. (choose word) No matter how much work it may require, getting a MBA degree turns out to be a wise investment. 替换：Even though it requires much work, 解析：原句要表达的意思是，不论主语花费的工作量有多大，它都是一个明智的投资 （may是关键词）； 而替换句中把may去掉，意思变为“即使它要求很大工作量，它是一个明智的投资。因此替换句改变了原句的意思。Tip: 当划线句中有情态动词时，必须格外注意，如果选项中没有对应意思的情态动词，那么一般为错选。2. (place word)The driver took the people for a ride who had been waiting. 替换：the people who had been waiting for a ride.解析：虽然替换句更正了原句中who指代不明的情况，但是却改变了作者的意思。正确修改为：The people who had been waiting were taken for a ride by the driver. 3. (choose word)Rising costs to raw materials may impel us to rise prices farther 替换：costs of raw materials may impale us to raise prices further. 解析：将”to” 换为”of”正确, 表示raw material花费的钱；raise替换rise正确，raise后面直接跟宾语，而rise通常用在没有直接宾语的语境中，如interest rose in May. 将farther替换为further正确，farther指距离，further指某事的程度;然而，用impale替换impel是错误的，impale表示将某物钉在某物上4.（place word） She is the most dedicated gardener on the block, every day watering the more than 50 plants in her yard.替换：every day watering more than the 50 plants in her yard.原句的more than修饰50 plants，而替换句中more than 提到the 50 plants前面，意思变为：她不仅仅watering，而且还做其他的工作。9. Electronic devices can distract driver. 10. Many directors suspect that managers are attempting to conceal the extent of losses at the company. (累赘表达为have the suspicion, are suspicious about) 11. They are ready for whatever may happen. ( in readiness) 12. The senator read her speech hastily.（赘述为in haste, with haste.）13. A tasty cake will not last long in a room full of hungry children. (赘述为A cake that is tasty will not last for a long time in a room full of children who are hungry)技巧：主谓一致和代词最容易辨别，所以有些情况下能帮助迅速判断选项二、Subject and Verb -Agreement1. 只有and可以使单数名词变为复数，其他的additive phrases (如 along with, together with, in addition to, as well as, accompanied by) 无此功能。 Eg: There are a desk and a toy around the corner2. Neithernor 和either or 采用就近原则3. GMAT中，collective nouns（集合名词）almost always singular4. Indefinite pronouns: usually singular. 以one, -thing, -body, 结尾的都是单三5. Subject phrase and clauses: always singular. Eg: Doing it means a lot to me. 6.三、Parallelism 平行结构a. Definition: the comparable sentence must be structurally and logically similar.b. By spotting Parallel Markers to know whether one sentence requires a parallelism. Markers Structures ExamplesAndX and YBothand Both X and YOr X or YEither or Either X or YNotbut Not X but YNot only but alsoRather than X rather than YFrom to From X to YAnd, But, Or are the most important markersc. And. 注意事项 If you join 2 clauses with and, you can put an optional comma before the and. Doing so is especially recommended when the clauses are long, independent, or both.Eg: I really like candy, and I eat them often. Treat any linking verbs as parallelism markers. Make the subject and object paralleld. Parallelism Elements1. 主句的谓语动词可以引发一系列单词，第二个平行结构的be动词和介词可以省略比如， 1. He wants to clean the house, wash cloth, and go shopping. 2. Cities are stressing the arts as a means to greater economic development and investing millions of dollars in cultural activities. 3. The railroad can either lose more money or solve its problems. 4. 从句平行这类结构必须从从句的连接词开始,以消除歧义比如，After I retire, I want to live in place where I can breath clean air and where the tax is low. e. Certain idioms demand parallelism as a result of their structure. f. Superficial Parallelism vs. Actual Parallelism 在将一个语法结构化成（结构）平行前，必须先搞清楚其各要素在逻辑上是否平行。例如，Joy dedicates himself in new job, going to work early, lunching regularly, and leaving office lately. Going, lunching, 和 leaving 是对dedicates的一个解释说明,其逻辑主语为Joy。 根据这个句子的meaning, 不能将dedicate 和后面三个动词当成是一系列并列平行的动作。Problem Set 1. Researchers have found a correlation between exercise and good grades.2. Although we were sitting in the bleachers, the baseball game was as exciting to us as to the people 3. Many teachers choose to seek employment in the suburbs rather than face low salaries in the city4. A good nights sleep not only gives your body a chance to rest, but also energizes you.5. The joint business venture will increase employee satisfaction and improve relations between A and B.6. The museum displays the work of a wide variety of artists, from those who are world-renowned to those who are virtually unknown. 7. The experiences we have (错：when children) in children influence our behavior in adulthood. 11. The band chosen for the annual spring concert appealed to both the student body and the administration. both A and B12. Tobacco companies, shaken by a string of legal setbacks in the United States, but which retain strong growth prospects in the developing world, face an uncertain future. 正确修改：which have been shaken by a string13. Voters want to elect a president who genuinely cares about health care, the environment, and the travails of ordinary men and women, and who has the experience, wisdom, 14. The consultant is looking for a caf where there are comfortable chairs and that provides free internet access. 修改：通过and可以看出此句应为两个名词性从句的平行，所以 that has comfortable chairs 应为最优表达四、Pronouns原则（做题思路）：1. 先行词必须存在，即我们要指代的那个先行词必须在句子中以名词的形式存在。（警惕名词作形容词的陷阱） 例如：The park rangers discussed measures to prevent severe wildfire, which could be dangerous to it. It原本应该指代park， 但是park放在ranger前面作为一个定语成分，不是名词。2. 先行词和指代词的搭配必须有意义（whether the antecedent and pronoun agree logically）。 例如, Although the term” supercomputer” may sound exaggerated, it is simply an fast mainframe that can execute trillions of calculations every second. 找到先行词，the term” supercomputer”, 但把它放到这句话的第二部分中后发现没有意义。 正确修改：it simply refers to an fastNote: GMAT通常会利用我们“想当然”的思维方式来设置陷阱，比如此题中，我们当然理解作者的意思（即原句中的i指的是supercomputer,），但是这在语法结构却是错误的。一定要形成一个习惯：把指代词换成前面的antecedent，看看是否能得到一个有意义有逻辑的句子。3. Antecedent and pronoun must agree in number, 两者在数量上一致4. 最容易出错的五个第三人称代词：it, its, they, their, them 这五个代词指代同名同物！5. a. 在GMAT中，this，these, that, those 不能单独指代名词。 例如，This is great 这种表达在GMAT里是模糊的。b. This, these, that, those可以作为形容词放在名词前面进行指代例如：New” nano-papers” incorporate fibers that give these materials strength.c. 以下单词可以独立使用来替代名词：it, they, them（指代同名同物）; 如果想使用that 或 those, 必须modify that or those to make them new copies例如：The money spent by her parents is less than that spent by her children. “ spent by her children” 来修饰that，以此结合来代替名词然而，在使用that 或者those的时候，必须要与其前面的先行词在数量上保持一致例如：Some people believe that the benefits of a healthy diet outweigh that of regular exercise. 代词that使用错误，因为先行词benefits是复数，因此应该用thoseWrong: Her products are unusual; many consider these unique.Right: Her products are unusual; many consider them unique. 7. 模糊歧义的情况及其修正第一种情况：先看一个例子：Researchers claim to have developed new” nano-papers” incorporating tiny cellulose fibers, which they allege give them the strength of cast iron. 我们一般会想当然的认为they指代researchers, them指代nano-papers. 然而，类似这种指代的混乱转换在GMAT中是不允许！修改方法之一是同时去掉这两个代词 ,which allegedly give these materials the strength of cast iron, according to the researchers. 第二种情况：一个句子中只有一个代词，然而其前面却有多个名词的情况。英语本身允许这种“模糊“的存在，因此，GMAT也会允许潜在意义上的代词模糊。例子1：Supernovas destroy their immediate environments in vast explosions, but by synthesizing heavy chemical elements, they provide the universe with the possibility of biochemistry-based life as we know it.Supernovas是第一个句子的主语，they也出现在第二句主语的位置上，我们很清楚的知道they指代supernovas, 即supernovas是provide的发出者。GMAT允许这种情况的指代存在。例子2： The board is investigating the compensation packages of several executives in order to determine how much they may have been improperly awarded. GAMT会认为they的使用是正确的。更严谨的表达是用these executives 替代they主语是一个句子里最重要的名词，因此就像这个句子展示的，主语一般会成为最好的先行词。7. 如果做题时遇到两个选项完全一样，除去一个选项用了代词，另一个选项用的是原词，那么优先选择后一个练习：1. Jim may not be elected CEO by the board because he does not meet its standards. Its可以用作集合名词的代词五、Modifiers 1. 形容词和副词。 a. 形容词只修饰名词和代词，副词可以修饰除名词和代词以外的任何句子成分。b. GMAT中经常出现的两种修饰组合：adj+adj+n.(两个形容词同时修饰一个名词) 和 adv+adj+n. （副词修饰形容词、形容词修饰名词）。 这两种组合表达的意思不一样。比如：wrong: James Joyce is Maxs supposedly Irish ancestor. Right：James Joyce is Maxs supposed Irish ancestor. 虽然我们不确定James是不是Max的祖先，但我们确定的是James(一个爱尔兰著名作家)一定是爱尔兰人，那么第一句用supposedly来修饰irish便是错误的。c. corresponding, frequent, independent, rare, recent, seeming, separate, significant, supposed, usual, 这些是在GMAT里出现过的、后面加“ly”变成副词的形容词 2. Position of Noun Modifiers 当我们看到名词性修饰词组时，先问问自己它修饰的名词是谁。然后确保这个修饰符合“touch rule” 原则a. 如果modifiers挨着另一个名词，misplaced modifiersEg: Jim biked along an old dirt road to get to his house, which cut through the woods. b. 如果我们想修饰的名词不在句子里，dangling modifiers.Eg: Resigned to the bad news, there was no commotion in the officeResigned作为过去分词修饰组，后面应该有一个具体的人修正：Resigned to the bad news, the officer made no commotion.c. GMAT考试中，经常会设置一个现在分词形式的modifier在句子开头(opening modifier)，制造dangling的情况。AUnlike noun modifiers, the verb modifiers do not have to touch the subjectB. Avoid long sequences of modifiers that modify the same noun. Putting two long modifiers in a row before or after a noun can lead to awkward or incorrect phrasings. 典型例子Eg: wrong: George Carlin, both shocking and entertaining audiences across the nation, who also struggled publicly with drug abuse, influenced and inspired a generation of comedians. 错误之一就是noun modifier-“who”没有紧邻主语。Better: Both shocking and entertaining audiences across the nation, George Carlin, who also struggled publicly with drug abuse, influenced and inspired a generation of comedians. Best: Both shocking and entertaining audiences across the nation, George Carlin influenced and inspired a generation of comedians, even as he struggled 3. Noun Modifiers with Relative Pronouns a. Which（只能修饰物） that（不能修饰人） who whose（可人可物） whom where when b. which or whom 有时候会跟着介词， 比如：the canal through which water flows; the senator for whom we work forc. who is used as the subject of the verb in a relative clause, whereas whom is used as the object of the verb or of a preposition. Eg: The security guard who we met was nice whomd. 当被修饰的名词是修饰句的宾语时， 引导词that 或 whom 可以被省略比如：The movie(that) we watched last night was touchinge. where只能被用来修饰具体存在的地点名词，如area, site, country. 不能修饰抽象名词， 如condition, situation, case, circumstances. 用in which 来修饰这些名词。在表示发现、理论、现象等等的内容时，用that引导宾语的同位语从句是比较好的结构。从句可以很清楚地说明现象、理论的内容，避免大量的介系词、代词，使句子简单清晰。4. Essential vs. Non-Essential Noun Modifiers (限制性非限制性)名词修饰要么是必要的，要么是不必要的先来体会一个例子： Essential: The mansion painted red is owned by Lee. Non-essential: This mansion, painted red, is owned by Lee.第二句中，this已经告诉我们那一幢大厦是Lee的，我们不需要再加上painted red去辨别。5. Verb Modifiers 作用：修饰动词， 用来回答解释主语的动词，比如“how, when, where, why. Etc.” 最基本的动词修饰语是副词。6 Which vs. Present Participle ing Which 只能用来指代前面紧邻的名词，永远不能指代前面整个句子例子：Wrong: Crime has recently decreased in our community, which has led to a rise in property values. 是这件事促成了property values的增加，而不是our community，此处用which显然不合逻辑。修改：The recent decrease in crime has led to the rise of property values. The crime has decreased recently in our community, leading to a rise in property values. (this use of ing form works best when we want to express the result of the main clause)练习：5. Mary buys cookies made with SugarFree, an artificial sweetener, which tastes as sweet as the corn syrup that her brother loves but where there are fewer calories than in an equivalent amount of corn syrup.“an artificial sweetener”作为同位语名词修饰sugargree,正确；“which tastesloves” 这个从句修饰sugarfree, 作为一个noun modifier, 根据touch rule，它应该紧邻sugarfree, 但是通常允许在这两者中间插入一个同位语；“where there are corn syrup” 错误，原因有二：1，sugarfree不能用where来修饰，应该用that 或which, 2. 不与前一个从句平行。 所以应该修改为which contains fewer calories than does an8. People, who talk loudly on their cell phones in crowded trains, show little respect for other passengers. 分析：作者想要表达的意思是，那些大声打电话的人对其他旅客一点都不尊重。而原文的表达结构传达出的意思是，人们，说话大声，对旅客一点不尊重。即它没有突出是“什么样的”人对其他旅客不尊重。因此，要去掉逗号，变成限制性定语从句。七、Verb Tense, Mood and Voice动词语气：作者对某一动作的理解及对策。陈述语气和虚拟语气。动词语态：指示谁做了某一动作。主动语态和被动语态1. Simple Tenses. GMAT typically prefers the simple tenses. 2. Progressive Tense: a. 用一般现在时表达客观规律或现象，或定义。不要用现在进行时b. 在GMAT考试中，不能用现在进行时表示未来的动作，虽然这样的表达在口语中是可以的3. Make the tense reflect authors meaning.4. The Perfect Tenses: a. Present Perfect: Still in EffectForm: have/has+ past participle第一种情况：描述一个动作从过去开始，一直持续到现在例子：This country has enforced the strict law for thirty years. 第二种情况：过去发生的动作虽然现在已经停止了，但是它的影响一直持续到现在，这个时候也用现在完成时例子：The child has drawn a picture on the wall. 这个孩子已经不再画了，但是那副画还在墙上。 The child draw a picture on the sand, but the ocean has erased it. 孩子过去在沙滩上画了幅画，但是海水已经把它冲蚀了（过去开始冲蚀，影响持续到现在）现在完成时与since连用，表示一个动作或其影响持续到现在。例如：Since 1986 no one has broken that world record. b. Past Perfect: the earlier actionForm: had+ participle我们并不总是使用过去完成时来描述earlier actions。只有当我们需要澄清、强调过去一系列动作发生的顺序时才需要用这个时态。如果这一系列动作的发生次序已经很清楚，那么不需要使用这个时态。例子：Richard drove to the store and bought some ice cream. Antonio drove to the store, and Cristina bought some ice cream. 在这个例子中，两个主句被and链接，作者不是在强调这些动作发生的顺序（尽管drove可能先于bought发生）。被and 和but链接的主句不要求使用过去完成时例子：right: Laura locked the deadbolt before she left for work.我们当然知道locked 先于left 发生，但before已经清楚的表明了这两个动作发生的顺序，因此这里不需要再使用过去完成时。 “after”同样晚发生的那个动作并不是必须要用一个simple past 时态表达出来，可以使用一个日期时间来表示。例如：By the 1945, the USA had been at war for seven years. 5. Perfect Tenses: only when necessary如果一个动作发生在过去并且持续到现在（或其影响），用现在完成时；如果在过去，一个动作先于另一个发生，同时我们需要澄清或强调这两个动作的时间顺序，那么用过去完成时。否则，坚持使用simple tense6.Tense Sequence 通常的顺序要么是present+future，要么是 past+conditional Right: The scientists believe that the machine will be wonderful.Right: The scientist believed that the machine would be wonderful8. The Subjunctive Mood 1. 不可能或不真实2. 建议、愿望和要求（that引导）这两种用法分别对应两类虚拟语气：hypothetical subjunctive & command subjunctive 第一种：Hypothetical subjunctive这种形式原则上发生在有if, as if, 或 as though的情况下。1、表示与现在事实相反的情况：从句：If+主语+过去时(Be动词用were)主句：主语+ should/would/might/could+do：2、表示与过去事实相反的情况从句：If+主语+had+done主句：主语+should/would/might/could+haveEg: 1 If I had got there earlier,I should/would have met her. 如果我早到那儿，我就会见到她。（事实：去晚了）2If he had taken my advice, he would not have made such a mistake. 如果他听我的劝告的话，就不会犯这样的错误了。（事实：没有听我的话） “ If.Then” Constructions 这种结构可以有多种时态搭配的方式，以下是最常见的五种 General Rule with no uncertainty If Jack eats pizza, then he becomes ill. (If present, then present) 这种类型等同于：Whenever Jack eats pizza, he becomes ill. General Rule with some uncertainty If Jack eats pizza, then he may become ill. (if present, then can or may)在这里，can 或者 may 表明一个不确定的结果 Particular Case(in the future) with no uncertaintyIf Jack eats pizza tomorrow, then he will become ill. (if present, then future) Unlikely Case(in the future)If Jack ate pizza tomorrow, then he would become ill (if hypothetical subjunctive, then conditional)Could, should, might, would Case That Never Happened( in the past) If Jack HAD EATEN pizza yesterday, then she WOULD HAVE BECOME ill.( if past perfect, then conditional perfect)GMAT中有ifthen 结构的归入以上五种，注意的是，GMAT的SC里不允许把would 或者should 放在if部分的句子里。第二种：The Command Subjunctive这种类型的虚拟语气在GMAT中比第一种更重要。伴随着发令词(bossy verb)的出现而使用（告诉人们做什么）基本形式：Bossy Verb+ That+Subject+Command subjunctive 例子：The agency REQUIRED that Gary BE ready before noon. We PROPOSE that the school board DISBAND这两个句子中，be 和 disband是命令语气。原则：1.第三人称的动词不以S结尾2.To be 必须是be, 不能是is，are, am Common Verbs that take only the Command Subjunctive when indicating desire：Demand, dictate, insist, mandate, propose, recommend, request, stipulate, suggest Verbs that take only the infinitive：advise, allow, forbid, persuade, want 例子：We allow him to be here. Verbs that take either the command subjunctive or the infinitive：ask, beg, intend, order, prefer, urge, requireWe require that he be here, OR We require him to be here Prohibit take other constructionRight: The agency prohibited Jack from working on weekends. 避免在whether后面使用命令虚拟语气，例如9. Active and Passive Voice .只有当动作的发出者存在时，才可以用by+doing； through 和 because of 用来表达做一件事依靠的工具或原因另外，不是必须要在一个复合句里保持active 或者passive.例如：The launch took place excellent and was seen on television练习： Has escaped应该改为一般过去时，因为这个escape发生在过去某一具体时间点上（episode ten years ago）两种修改：live, 或者 had livedWake up这个momentary action发生在rang之前，因此要用had woke up.但是，我们可以说She was already awake when the phone rang. 因为awake是一个描述状态的形容词八、Comparison对比是平行结构的一种。最常见、最重要的对比标记词是“Like, Unlike, As, Than”。 见到以上词汇，要下意识的找出被对比的两种事物来1. Like VS. Asa. Like是个介词. 因此它后面必须跟名词、代词、或者名词短语。永远不能把从句或者一个介词短语放在Like后面！例子：Like her brother, Ava aced the test, （like+noun phrase）需要注意的是，like可以跟动名词：Like swimming, skiing is a great exercise.b. As 既可以当做介词也可以当做连词（用来对比两个句子） 在GMAT中，as和Like表达的意思是一样的Righ