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目录
1.引言 1
1.1我国塔式起重机行业发展概况 1
2设计任务书 5
2.1 产品设计的依据、目的及意义 5
2.2 产品的用途及适用范围 6
2.3 基本技术参数及性能指标 6
2.4 顶升机构工作原理 7
2.5 关键问题及其解决方案 7
2.6 塔式起重机的构造 7
2.7工作机构 10
3.设计计算说明书 11
3.1顶升机构液压系统的确定 11
3.2塔式起重机顶升机构的设计 15
4.使用说明书 24
4.1顶升作业 24
4.2顶升过程的注意事项 25
4.3液压顶升系统的维护和保养 25
4.4一般说明 26
4.5 起重机的塔身升、降作业说明 26
4.6起重机的操作 27
5标准化审核报告 27
结论 28
参考文献 29
致谢 30
毕业设计说明书（论文）中文摘要

QTZ63型塔式起重机顶升机构的研究及设计
摘要塔式起重机在现代化建设中起到非常重要的地位，它是现代社会进步的一个标志，是人类建设不可缺少的重要设备。它的高效性、安全稳定性是塔机行业较普遍关心和注意的问题。本设计就塔式起重机的顶升机构的结构、受力分析、核心受力件材料等几个方面，结合我国自行生产的QTZ63型塔式起重机为例，通过研究、分析踏步和顶升横梁的受力情况，明确踏步和顶升横梁的结构和尺寸的确定方法，以及对套架关键尺寸的确定。以及根据顶升载荷确定顶升机构的液压系统。确保塔式起重机能够安全、稳定的实行顶升加节过程，保证塔式起重机的安全施工。

关键词顶升机构踏步顶升横梁安全稳定

毕业设计说明书（论文）外文摘要

The Research and Design of How Tower Crane(QTZ63)rises
Abstract
The tower crane plays a very important role in modern construction. As an indispensable and important construction equipment, it is a marking of progress in modern society . In the crane area ,the crane’s high efficiently and safe stability is the key concern. With the example of tower crane QTZ63 made by China , this article introduces the rise structure of the tower crane, force analysis and the key component material. Through studying and analsing the force conditions of the tramper and top rising beam , make clear how to calculate and definite the dimensions and structure of top rising beam and tramper. So does the key size definition of frame. Make sure that tower crane can work safety , steady in its rising process, guarantee the safe construction of tower crane.

Keywords Rising mechanism Tramper Rising beam Safety stability

QTZ63型塔式起重机顶升机构的设计
1.引言
二次世界大战结束以后，由于许多国家夷为废墟，庞大而艰巨的家园重建工作，要求建筑施工实现机械化，以加快建设进度。作为建筑机械化主导机械，塔式起重机得以应运而迅猛发展。
1.1我国塔式起重机行业发展概况
我国塔式起重机行业于20世纪50年代开始起步，1953年由原民主德国引进建筑师-Ⅰ型塔式起重机（Baumeister Ⅰ）,1954年抚顺试制成功第一台2-6t塔式起重机，仿建筑师-Ⅰ型。初名TQ2-6塔式起重机。首次在北京用于大型砌块民用建筑施工，并取得成功。1965年列入国家生产计划的沈阳建机厂开始批量生产红旗Ⅱ-16型塔式起重机。
20世纪80年代随着改革开放和国际技术交流增多，我国曾先后有原联邦德国.法国.意大利及丹麦引进了为数可观的塔式起重机产品，特别是1984年由法国POTAIN公司引进的三种机型（H3/36B.F0/23B.GTMR360B）的生产许可证，极大地促进了我国塔式起重机产品设计制造技术的进步。通过消化吸收国外先进技术，对基础部件，如电动机.电器.回转支承.传动机构及安全装置等进行定点生产，一些生产主机的专业大厂还进行了相应的技术改造，增设钢材预处理生产线，从而使国产塔式起重机的质量迅速提高，一些主要机种已达到或接近国外同类产品质量水平。
进入20世纪90年代以后，我国塔式起重机行业随着全国范围建筑任务的增加进入了一个新的兴盛时期，年产量连年猛增，全国塔式起重机总拥有约为10万台。塔式起重机出口业务曾一度极为兴旺。至此，无论从生产规模，应用范围和塔式起重机总量来衡量，我国均堪称世界首号塔式起重机大国。
改革开放以来，国民经济的腾飞和投资规模的扩大，促进了建筑机械行业的不断发展，为塔机行业提供了良好机遇和发展空间。
据有关方面提供的信息：我国西部开发建设、国家能源建设、煤炭基本建设、油田建设、住宅建设、城市地铁建设等众多项目，预计2001～2005年全社会固定资产投资规模约为60000亿元，用于购置建筑机械的费用每年约为700亿元左右，其中相当数额用于购置塔机。
近几年来，我国的塔式起重机制造行业发展速度很快。出现了一大批塔机制造厂家，开发了系列化塔机产品，实现了产品更新换代，积累了不少经验，市场竞争局面逐渐形成，特别是我国加入WTO以后，国际竞争更趋激烈。为了塔机企业在竞争中立于不败之地，必须生产出质优价廉的产品。但是我们的塔机企业与国外先进企业相比存在一些不足之处，如产品档次低，质量不够稳定，产品结构单一，更新换代速度慢，技术管理与生产管理落后等，因而难以有效地满足市场不断变化的需求，也制约了企业的进一步发展。

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内容简介：: 山西农业大学本科生毕业论文（设计）选题审批表毕业论文（设计）题目QTZ63型塔式起重机顶升机构的研究及设计指导教师王七斤职称学生具备条件应修完本专业教学计划规划所有课程选题完成形式毕业设计内容简要：本文分析了QTZ63型塔式起重机液压顶升机构的工作原理、参数计算过程和主要元件的选型。分析了液压自升式塔式起重机的顶升过程，介绍了顶升套架与其它相关部件的尺寸关系，以及顶升套架关键尺寸的设计方法。对液压自升式塔式起重机安装、拆卸中的核心部件套架的结构尺寸设计研究，分析踏步和顶升横梁的受力情况，明确踏步和顶升横梁结构和尺寸的确定方法，以及顶升机构液压系统的确定。系主任签字：年月日院长签字：年月日2山西农业大学本科生毕业论文(设计)开题报告题目 QTZ63型塔式起重机顶升机构的研究及设计学院名称工程技术学院专业名称机械设计制造及其自动化（信）年级机制052班学生姓名原波学号 2005151237 指导教师王七斤职称讲师 2009年 5月 10日选题的依据及意义（包括课题的理论价值和实践价值；国内外的研究概况等）：近年来，随着建设工程规模不断扩大、高层建筑的日益增多，液压自升式塔式起重机已经广泛应用于建筑施工中。但是塔机的机械事故和安全事故也时有发生，从事故分析来看发生在安装和拆卸过程中的比例比较大，纵观事故原因，主要是操作不当引起的，但是结构尺寸设计不合理和预防措施不完善也是原因之一。为使设计者和使用者对塔机的顶升有更深的了解，避免事故的发生，本设计就塔式起重机容易出现事故的顶升机构进行了分析和研究。科学的设计了顶升机构的受力部件和尺寸的确定方法，以及液压系统的确定，能够保证塔式起重机安全、稳定的实现顶升加节过程，保证施工的安全。本课题研究内容本课题就QTZ63型塔式起重机的顶升机构的工作原理作了充分的介绍，对塔式起重机顶升、拆卸及塔式起重机顶升、拆卸有关的零部件进行了分析。最后，还介绍了顶升机构的顶升作业和顶升作业应注意的问题。本课题研究方案1 查阅相关文献和资料2 对查阅到的资料进行分析整理3画出图纸和整理设计说明书研究的创新之处本课题在总结了前人的研究基础上，重点阐述了顶升机构液压系统的确定方法。研究过程(含完成期限)1 查阅相关文献和资料（2009年4月10日2009年4月20日） 2对查阅到的资料进行分析整理（2009年4月21日2009年4月30日） 3拟定方案（2009年5月1日2009年5月10日） 4画技术图纸和总结设计说明书（2009年5月11日2009年5月31日） 6修改并定稿（2009年6月1日2009年6月10日）指导教师意见指导教师签名：年月日教研室意见教研室主任签名：年月日院系意见主管领导签名：年月日14 Machines for Lifting The strongest athletes can lift close to 455kg just off the ground , but few ordinary people can lift more than about 68kg . Early man soon developed machines for lifting large stones and tree trunks .A simple device is a single pulley wheel arranged as a hoist .But a rope around one pulley merely changes the direction of the pull and friction in the pulleys bearing in fact makes this simple machine less efficient than a straight pull .If the rope is wound around a wheel or cylinder to form a windlass ,a mechanical advantage is gained ,by means of which a man can easily lift more than his own weight . A small windlass can be driven by a hand crank -first used in the ninth century -and many early cranes and hoists used this principle.Screws and Pulleys Many basic inventions such as the screw and the pulley , cannot be credited to any one man .The Greeks were probably using screws by about 400 BC and by the time of Archimedes the screw certainly had various applications .Archimedes himself invented a type of pump consisting of a long helix in an upward-sloping tube; by turning a handle at the upper end the operator could screw water from the lower end of aspiralto its upper end until it flowed out of the Nile Valley. In Roman and medieval times,screw presses were used for crushing olives and grapes.In the thirteenth century the French monk Villard de Honneecourt made a machine that used ascrew for lifting instead of pressing downward .Today known as the screw jack,the device has many applications from lifting s car to change a wheel to jacking up whole buildings while a story is slipped underneath.Pulleys were also known also known to the ancient Greeks who used them to lower a religious dreama.By the time of Christ,Roman engineers were desiging and making multiple pulley blocks for lifting and making multiple pulley blocks for lifting heavy loads.A 200t Egyptian granite obelisk,similar to the so called Cleopatras needles now standing in New York and London,was erected in ancient Rome using many pulley blocks and treams of slaves to provide the muscle power,Todays compact hoistsuse exactly the same principles.Hoists and Cranes Machines for lifting can also be made using gears to obtain mechanical advantage.With only horse power,sixteenth-century miners hauled loads of ore and other minerals.Later hoists using steam enginesand even modern ones with electric motorsuse similar principles.Early cranes were merely rope-and-pulley hoists rigged between two or three wooden legs straddling the object to be lifted.Power was provided through a winglass or,for heavy loads,by a treadmill.The building projects and dock installations of the Middle A ges depended on such machines for lifting huge blocks of stone.Modern cranes are of teo main typesbridge cranes and jib cranes.both use a windlass with steel wire rope wrapped around a powered drum.A bridge crane gas a box-girder beam (called a gantry) running on long elevated tracks at each of its ends . The hoisting system is carried in a trolley,which moves along the gantry bean.Bridge cranes are commonly set up above a working area to handle such loads as tree trunks and steel beans.A jib crane has a long boom that can swing horizontally to move the load side ways.Many such cranes can also luffto control the reach of the crane by anging the boom more or less to the horizontal. A cantilever crane is a typical example .A cantitlever or tower crane is used in construcing high rise-buildings. Anchored to the ground or to the building itself,the crane is extended upward as the work proceeds. Standard sections form the tower,which supports a horzontal bom whose weight, and that of the load,is counter-balanced by a block of concrete.Thehoist is in a trolley that can travel along the boom.Lifting PeopleSkyscrapers and high-rise apartments would have been impossible without elevators interconnecting the floors and giving access to the ground. In 1857 the American inventor Elisha Otis(18111861)installed a steam-powered elevator in a New York department store.Early elevators used the screw-jack principle,soon to be replaced in the 1870s by elevators using hydraulic pressure.Water,oil,or other gluid is pumped to provide pressure against a piston,which is turu raissesthe load.Many building use a combination of hydraulics and pulleys which allows the elevator to go up higher.In the twentieth century-rise buildings need passenger elevators using electic motors that travel at more than 365m perminute,or about two floors each second.In subway stations and large stores,there is a more or less continuous flow of people between various levels,Here the people-lifting problem is solved by using escalators,which are continuosly moving staircases basded on the conveyor belt principle with an endless belt of steps.The original patents of 1891 were obtained and improved by the Oitis Elevator Company that, together with Westinghouse Elevators,developed the modern escalator in the 1930s.An escalator 1.25m wide moving at 27m per minute can carry about 8,000people an hour.Movings heavy loads Ordinary cranes, used in the construction industry or for loading ships,can lift weights of up to 200t.But consider the following problems: a prefabricated 1,500t section of s ship(such as the whole superstructure or the front part of the bow) has to be placed in its final position; a 6,000t rocker has to be moved 5km to its launching site; a7,000tsection of a stadium has to be placed in a heavy load,and each has been solved.What are heavy loads?The abitity to move heavy loads is increasingly important to the engineering industries because the cost-saving of bulding assemblies on a specific site before moving them to their final places is now accepted. But preafabricated structures are becoming larger and heavier.As new load-moving techniques have been developed, other industries have adopted them The word heavy is arbitrary, but for these purpose it includes loads ranging from hundreds of tons to tens of thousands of tons.moving heavy loads has presented engineers with problems for thousands of years.Many suggestions have been put forward as to how stone was moved in the building of the pyraminds and Stonehenge.Certainly a method using tree trunks as rollers would have been known then,and animal or human power could have provided the moving force.Man started with the lever and soon discovered the arrangement of the moving force ,the load ,and the fulcrum (pivot)that would be most useful in particular applications . Archimedes is reputed to have claimed , “give me a firm place on which to stand and I will move the earth .” He knew that given a lever long enough to gain the necessary mechanical advantage a small movement of the heaviest load could be obtained with a sufficiently large movement of even a small applied force.The Problems InvolvedMoving heavy loads involves reducing the friction underneath the load and providing sufficient force to overcome the friction remaining once the load is moving . To reduce friction ,rolling logs were used and later wheels of various types. Grease was also applied to ease the movement of the load, particularly in the shipbuilding industry. More recently various slippery plastic coatings , such as (PTFE),have been used ,as well as air and water cushions that operate like hovercraft.There are two kinds of friction involved in moving anything . Static ,or stationary , friction has to be overcome to start something moving , and dynamic ,or moving ,friction opposes its continued movement .The coefficient of friction between two materials is defined as the ration of the force required to move the load to the weight of the load .Static and dynamic coefficient have wide ranges . These maximum values drop between the traditional slippery slopes of steel on greased steel (used for ship launching) from 0.25 and 0.17,down to 0.10 and 0.05 for steel on PTFE plastic . The values fall to 0.01 for air-bearing systems. The use of friction-reducing system can introduce further difficulties . Loads of thousands of tons , once started moving ,also have to be stopped . For this reason , when coefficients of friction are low , suitable braking systems must be incorporated . After a ship is launched , strong chains and cables are needed to stop it .Any conventional system can be used for moving power , providing that it can overcome the frictional forces that remain . When large cranes ,such as portal cranes ,are used to move a load from one point to another ,they are merely lifting the load to reduce the coefficient of friction between it and the ground .This means that stresses are then put into the ground at chosen points ,which have previously been strengthened to bear the loads .Strengthening the Surface A third difficulty concerns the amount of preparation required for the surface on which the load is to be moved . This involves a calculation of the maximum permissible ground loading . For many materials this quantity is known-for example ,compacted gravel will with stand a ground loading of 3.3 tons per square foot and wet sand 0.55 tons per square foot .At greater loadings the gravel or sand collapses and the load sinks . The loading is a pressure -a weight on a given area-and for a given load increasing the area of contact obviously lowers the pressure . This is why snowshoes support a man on loose snow whereas in ordinary boots he would sink . In most heavy load-moving techniques there must be a way of spreading point loads . But even this is not a complete answer to ground loading limitations . A hovercraft or air-cushion system that can carry loads over water has been known slowly to bury itself in dry sand as the sand is blown out from under the load .It rapidly becomes clear that there is no universal way of moving a variety of load over various of loads over various surfaces for different applications . The answer to the problems illustrated here are merely a few modern solutions-a portal crane to lift a ship structure , caterpillar crawlers to move the stadium stands.The air-cushion technique uses high air pressure underneath a load to lift the load slightly so that air can escape . This continually escaping air acts as a bearing for the load and very low coefficients of friction can be obtained . The loading is spread over the area of the cushion . The Oahu Stadium in Hawaii was designed so that the stands could be moved from a rectangular shape for football to a diamond shape for baseball. The air-cushion system was chosen because it reduces friction . Problem on the smooth surface have arisen because of loading and slopes that could cause the loads to run away .Movable friction grippers are used for braking the stands .The experiences of tower crane construction in High buildingWith tower crane, it can accelerate construction speed and get good benifit in high building construction as well-known, but in keep with ones wish to make it practical, need to solve properly a little bit good related problem: Select suitable tower crane and arrange reasonably under construction is the key factors.The factors that affect tower crane option are：The factors that affect tower crane option；Plane and the design of build buildings；Number of construct plies and the height of layer and building degree of height overall; Building project material object ；Construct component, product and materials, and equipment carry quantity; Construct the arrangement of construction progress as well as the partition of project time limit, construction rhythm and the construction section of running water; Construct base and environments construction ambient conditions; Unit resource conditions (whether financial resources purchase large scale equipment , whether the people that know management and use large scale equipment ); At that time tower type crane supply conditions as well as the requirement for the index of economic benefits. Therefore make best choice need to expound and prove further.For certain high-rise building or exceed high-rise building comprehensive body projects, through main parameter for score I, type selecting and the calculation of class productivity are studied, with certain kind length hang arm to adhere type from liter tower machine possibility is the option with appropriate comparison. But choose what length actually to hang arm bend type from liter tower machine? Below is 3 kinds of different length is 1, the schoolwork area of 55 m that hangs arm is 1.2, and is of 60 m to hang the schoolwork area of arm for 1.44. See from cost, in type identical, biggest range lifting capacity match approximately, under hook high equal condition, if with 50 m, hanging the schoolwork area of arm for 1.2 the cost of 60 m that hangs arm tower machine is 1.19. Thus it can be seen, so long as increasing the expense of 6%, can make the schoolwork area of tower crane increase 20%. If pay out the price of 19% , can make tower machine schoolwork area raise 44%. Experience shows that if tower machine hangs arm proper increase somewhat, the favorable level of the building capital on-the-spot is carried, alleviate the construction internal level on-the-spot to carry miscellaneous levels, can at the same time still solve the contradiction of different construction paragraph volume disequilibria. Therefore increase expense properly to purchase hang arm some longer tower machines is worthwhile.Pass for range 50 60 the length of m hang arm tower machine cost analysis, can still find out , in biggest range lifting capacity match approximately, under hook high equal condition the cost of the crane of rail mounted, than corresponding stationary from liter tower machine go back to 12 one hundred and forty thousands Yuan. As being implementing course , as being under construction progress pass , tower machine in climb continuously upward liter per separate 15 25 m need and construct to carry out once pull knot tight firmly, therefore it has no necessity that expense one-hundred thousands remains Yuan to purchase a tower machine of rail mounted.As for 50 60 m length hang arm the cost from liter type tower machine make further analysis, can still know: The cost of base stationary tower machine than the cost high 2 without base stationary tower machine thirty thousands Yuan. Since seeing superficially, for oneness investment purchase base stationary tower confidential than purchase same parameter do not have some base stationary tower machine colored money belong to not economic decisions probably. the principle of Tower crane chooseMain parametersThe chief principles of Tower crane choose are the main parameters that must meet needs, indicates before parameter to include range, load-lifting height and lifting capacity, with load moments. Parameter again divides into ranges: Minimum range and the range in biggest range and biggest lifting capacity. Meet the range of construction needs parameters should pass according to the body size in construction building and make picture determineThe lifting capacity claimed denotes to take the sum of heavy weight, horizontal dams (50kg), sling and vessel weight that hangs. When the parameter of lifting capacity again divides into biggest range, load lifting capacity (Q0) with biggest lifting capacity ( Qmax ), the former denotes hook pulley to locate in the lifting capacity in arm head, then hook pulley the biggest load lifting capacity when works with multiple rate ( 3 the rope, 4 ropes, 6 ropes or 8 ropes )For reinforced concrete, it is high and exceeds high building, the load lifting capacity in biggest range is crucial. If completely assembly type big board is constructed, the biggest range lifting capacity should be basis with biggest outside wallboard weight. If cast-in-place reinforced concrete is constructed , it should determine the biggest range needed according to biggest concrete hopper capacity lifting capacity, normally 1.5 2.5 t. For steel structure, it is in high and exceeds high building. The biggest lifting capacity of tower type crane is crucial parameter .It should be accurate with the weight of the heaviest component.Load moment is the product of lifting capacity and corresponding working range. Load moments usually expresses with the curve map of load moment that abscissa is range (L, with m as unit), ordinate is lifting capacity ( Q, with t as unit ). It has the curve of load moments frequently from tower crane; express hanging arm respectively different combination length conditions the change condition of load moment. For reinforced concrete, it is important is biggest range to take weight satisfied in construction requirement in high and exceed high building. For steel structure, in high and exceed high building, it is important that the load moment of biggest lifting capacity must accord with needs. Hook altitude is from rail end face or from basic end face the vertical distance to the center of hook. The load-lifting height of tower type crane not only depends on rigidity and the strength of tower structures, and depends on the time rate of hoisting mechanism of the reel silk rope capacity and hook pulley group of key link. Load-lifting height is a crucial main parameter. How to handle regardless of other tower type crane parameters, specifications how to be superior, does not join needs as load-lifting height, still has no way of completing construction task. The same range and load-lifting height that tower type crane needs for carrying out hoisting construction can determine through making picture and calculating as parameter.Tower type crane production efficiency should satisfy construction progress requirementFirst the structural high-rise building standard layers of reinforced concrete the in average each contract needs of square meters of floor area 1.1 1.6 hang. According to the building layer estimation of floor area hang N always estimate always. Secondly, tower crane in average each class asks can complete 50 70 hang. Can calculate tower type crane according to the tower type crane quantity and every day schoolwork class number used for planning to match it can be complete and total to hang N to total. If N totals N total, think that the production efficiency of tower type crane can satisfy the requirement of construction progress.Suitable types of tower craneAccording to recent years domestic every place, construct the high construction experience of exceeding high building, choose length to hang arm adhere type from liter tower type crane carry out the high-rise favorable condition of exceeding high building construction is: 1 can meet the needs of building build and layer high change better; 2 does not affect building internal construction arrangement; 3 arrangements dismantle comparison convenience; 4 do not hinder driver line of vision, convenient driver is operating with the raising of tower type crane productivity. Adopt to adhere type the unfavorable point from liter tower machine is: 1 influences are local to decorate project; 2 needs more tower standard section and is a certain quantity of to bend dressing to set up, increase high cost and class cost.According to in recent years domestic every place, construct the high-rise construction experience of exceeding high-rise building, choose length to hang arm adhere type from liter tower type crane carry out the high-rise favorable condition of exceeding high-rise building construction is: 1 can choose better climb the unfavorable point of type tower type crane is: The layer structure of 1 floor need to install often to climb liter hole move hole and is going to mend properly strong, affect the construction arrangement in building; 2 take apart to pack trouble, it is greater to take apart tower cost; 3 driver line of visions get hindrances, disadvantage in the raising of tower type crane productivity. In adopting climb tower type crane the major advantage that carries out high-rise building construction is: It is favorable that 1 do not take construction place, as the narrow project on the spot is. 2 can carry out schoolwork with less range, in usually, from 1 value ability is 600 KN m climb tower machine can play the part of 2 take again ability 800 KN m adhere the role of type tower machine. The Shanghai dissolute mansion project building degree of wild goose of height overall is of 83.5 m, average size is 32.1 m 49.8 m, when being under construction with a range, it is of 30 m , take heavy ability is 1120 KN m adhere type tower machine, have gotten good effect. 3 costs are low, class cost is cheap. Climb type tower machine with equal take the again ability tower machine of rail mounted compare , the cost of the former than the approximately cheap 25% of the latter 40%, economic benefits are clear proof apparently. 4 because of use building structure pursue layer climb upward to rise, drum can save to step standard section use quantity. The more building layer is effect high , the more steel structure economize bigger. Therefore for 18 high-rise twenty-five floor building, in building build the simple, building layer condition with not great area take off , stress compete adopting climb type tower machine come to be under construction. For 25 thirty floor, especially thirty floor more than exceed high-rise building, choose climb type construction benefits stick out more.The application and the operation of the CraneMany people associate cranes with construction or utility companies. After all, tower cranes are used to erect skyscrapers, and their impressive height makes them visible for miles. Other commonly seen cranes are used to lift air conditioners onto rooftops, or place utility poles into the ground. In fact, cranes are used in many industries, including Logistics, to move equipment and supplies, transfer cargo from one vehicle to another, and load and unload ships and barges.Prior to the modern container-shipping era, it took up to three weeks to unload a cargo vessel.The development of the modern, high-speed container crane shortened that time to about 18 hours.There are many different types of cranes, built to handle various types and shapes of material, in different environments.The logistics industry is no different, with a number of specialized cranes used in sea and river ports. However, since much of the cargo shipped by boat or barge is now placed in containers, the container crane is the workhorse of the modern seaport cargo facility.Container cranes can be fixed, ride on rails, or outfitted with massive tires that provide the most flexibility and freedom of movement.Some modern cranes can handle more than one container at a time. Other container cranes are smaller self-propelled machines capable of handling one container at a time. Of course, some cargo is just too massive or unwieldy to be placed inside of a container. This cargo needs a different type of crane to move it on and off ships. Heavy-lift mast cranes,developed in the 1980s, are ideal for this purpose. They can be mounted either on dry land or aboard the ship itself, and combine some of the features of the tower crane with a stationary derrick crane. Crane Operators may use mechanical boom and cable or tower and cable equipment to lift and move materials, machines, or products in many directions.The operation of a container crane is a highly sought-after job that requires steady nerves, a tolerance of heights, and extensive training.Loading and unloading of some cargo may be guided by other workers with a better view of where cargo needs to be placed. Directions are provided by radio or hand signals.Computers are also becoming more common inside modern cranes to help Operators calculate loads and manage lifts. 起重设备最强壮的运动员能把455kg的重物提离地面，而普通人很少能举得起68kg以上的重物。人们很早就发明了能举得起大石头和树杆的设备。一个简单的起重设备就是独滑轮，但是绳子绕在一个滑轮上做成的起重机仅仅改变了拉力的方向，而滑轮轴上的摩擦力使得它比直接拉的方式效率更底。如果绳索绕在轮子滚筒上形成了轱辘，那么就获得了机械上的优越性，通过这种方法，人能轻易举起比自身重得多的东西。小型轱辘能用手摇柄带动（这在9世纪开始使用）。很多早期的吊车和升降机就是根据这一原理制成的螺杆和滑轮很多基本发明，比如螺杆和滑轮，已无法归功于个人。大约公元前400年，希腊人就可能开始使用螺杆，到阿基米德（逝世于公元前212年）时代，螺杆就已有多种用途了。阿基米德自己曾发明了一种水泵，它是一根装在倾斜长管里的螺杆，上端装有一摇柄，当转动摇柄，可以从管道底部吸水，从顶部流出。这种泵用于尼罗河谷地的灌溉。在罗马和中世纪时代，螺杆的挤压力压榨橄榄和葡萄。13世纪时法国哈内可特用螺旋发明了一种不是向下压而向上举起物体的起重设备，这就是螺旋千斤顶。它今天仍有着广泛的应用，包括从顶起汽车以便换轮胎，到顶起整座房屋以在下面装入一层楼房。古希腊人也运用轱辘把一座神像在一幕宗教戏剧的高潮时放置到舞台上。到基督时期，罗马工程师已能设计和制造多重滑轮组来提举重物。一座200吨重的花岗岩尖塔（类似于矗立在纽约和伦敦的称之为“埃及女王针尖”的方尖塔），就是古罗马人用许多滑轮组和成队的奴隶劳动矗立起来的。今天的复合式卷扬机就是利用同样的原理。卷扬机和起重机起重设备也可使用齿轮装置以取得机械效率。16世纪的矿工用马匹作为动力来提升矿石，后来的卷扬机使用蒸汽引擎，直到现代采用电动引擎的提升设备，都是运用同样的道理。早期的起重机仅仅是安装在二到三个跨过所起重货物木架子上的绳索和滑轮组。其动力由于摇轱辘提供，对于较重提升物，则用脚踩提供动力。在中世纪，建筑工程和船坞码头的建设中都是用这样的设备来吊起大石块的。现代的起重设备主要有两重类型桥式起重机和悬臂式起重机，二者都是使用纲绳缠绕的动力转筒做成的卷扬机作起重设备。桥式起重机有一根箱形梁（叫行车梁），梁的两端运行在高架轨道上。行车能够沿着轨道前后运动。起重系统装在需要吊运的钢梁和木料堆的上方。吊臂式起重设备有一个可水平摆动的提吊重物的长臂。许多这样的吊车能通过调节吊臂对水平面的角度来控制吊臂的幅度。悬臂起重机就是其中一个典型例子。悬臂起重机和踏吊常常用于高层楼房的建设中，塔吊可固定在地面或建筑物上，随着建筑物的升高而上升。由标准节组成的塔身支持着水平吊臂，水平吊臂和重物的重量由混凝土配重块来平衡。起重卷扬机装在一个沿吊臂行走的滑车上。载人升降机如果没有电梯来连系各楼层和地面通道，摩天楼和高层建筑是不可想象的。1857年，美国发明家奥提斯（18111861）在纽约一家百货公司里安装了一台蒸汽动力的升降机。早期升降机是利用的螺旋千斤顶的原理，到19世纪70年代就为液压原理制成的升降机所取代。把水，油或其他液体放到活塞里挤压就能抬起重物。很多建筑物中采用液压装置和滑轮组合以使升降机能上到更高处。20世纪，建筑物愈来愈高，超高层的建筑物需要的是运行速度为365米/分钟以上或每秒两层的客运电梯。在地铁站和大商场里，各层之间人来人往，持续不断，这里采用的是自动扶梯来运送顾客。这是一种基于传动带原理制成的连续移动的楼梯，可为人们提供无穷无尽的踏步板。这种扶梯雏形最早于1891年有奥提斯电梯公司获得专利并取得发展。该公司曾于20世纪30年代与西屋电梯公司一起改进了现代自动扶梯。一台1.25米宽，运行速度为27米/分钟的自动扶梯，每小时内运送8000名顾客。重物搬运用于建筑工业或装卸轮船的普通吊车，可以吊起200吨左右的重物。但是让我们看看以下情况：一个重达1500吨的轮船预制部件（比如船头的整个上部结构或前面部分）必须要安装到位；一枚重达6000吨的火箭要搬运5公里到达发射基地；一个重达7000吨的露天体育场必须安装到一个新地点。以上每种情况都涉及到重型载荷的搬运问题，自然，每个问题都已经得到了解决。什么是重型载荷？搬运重型载荷的能力在工程行业中的重要性日益增加，因为在一个指定的地点装配组合好房屋构件后，再搬运到它们的最终位置，这一方法可以节省开支，已得到广泛的接受。但现在的预制件变得越来越大，越来越重，随着搬运技术的改进，其他行业也采纳了这一方法。“重型” 这个词本身是任意的，它可以包括几百吨到上万吨的重量。几千年来，重型荷载的搬运一直是困扰着工程师们的问题。比如，关于在金字塔和大型石柱的建造过程中石头是怎样搬运上去的，人们提出了很多种猜测。很显然，利用树干做滚筒的方法当时人们就会利用了，用人或动物作为搬运的动力。人类从杠杆开始，很快就发现了合理布置外力、载荷以及对于一些特别场合是最为有利的。阿基米德有句名言著称于世，他说：“给我一个支点，我可以把地球撬起来。”他知道，如果有一个足够长的杠杆来获取必要的机械效益的话，便可以通过很小的外力以足够大的幅度运动来实现巨大重物的小幅度运动。涉及的问题搬运重型载荷涉及到减少重物下面的摩擦以及提供足够的外力以克服载荷移动时所存留的摩擦力。为了减少摩擦，最早人们利用滚木，后来是各种各样的轮子。人们也用润滑油使重物搬运更为便利，尤其是在造船工业上。近年来，各种光滑的塑性涂料（如聚四氟乙烯）开始使用，像气垫船那样的空气垫和水垫也已投入使用。搬运任何东西时都会产生两种摩擦。开始搬运时必须克服静态（或恒定）摩擦，而动态（或活动）摩擦则会阻止物体持续移动。两种材料之间的摩擦系数定义为移动物体的必需外力与物体重量的比值。静摩擦和动摩擦系数变化的范围都很大。在传统方法润滑过的光滑倾斜钢板之间（用于轮船下水）最大摩擦系数为0.25到0.17，在聚四氟乙烯塑料板与钢板之间下降到0.10到0.05之间。在气垫系统中摩擦系数下降到0.01。减小摩擦装置的使用也相应地带来进一步的问题。成千上万吨的荷载一经起动，最终还要将它停下来。基于这个原因，当摩擦系数很小的时候，要适当并用制动系统。如轮船下水。需要用粗大的锁链和缆绳来制动。任何常规机械系统都可作为搬运动力，只要它能克服物体所保留的摩擦力。当大型吊车（比如龙门吊车）把荷载从一个地方搬运到另一个地方时，其实它只是举着载荷来减少其与地面的摩擦系数。也就是说，这时的压力会压向地面的某些预定点，而这些预定点为了承受载荷已经得到预先的加固。表层加固第三个困难要涉及到承受载荷移动的表层加固，而这又跟地面最大容许载荷的计算有关。对很多材料来说，这个数量是已知的。比如说，夯实的沙石面能承受的载荷是3.3吨每平方英尺，而湿沙石的表面只能承受0.55吨每平方英尺。对于稍重的载荷，基础就回塌陷，载荷本身也会下沉。荷载就是一种压力-即指定面积上的重量-对于一个给定的荷载而言，增加其与地面的接触面积就会很明显的降低压力。一个人穿滑雪鞋就能站在松散的雪地里，而穿一般的靴子就会下沉，是同样的道理。在多数的重型荷载搬运技巧中肯定有一种扩散局部荷载的方法。但即使使用这种方法也不一定能完全解决地面承载的局限性。人们知道气垫船或气垫系统可在水面上行走，但也逐渐认识到，在沙漠中却行不通，在荷载下面吹出的石子往往会把其覆盖在石子之中。人们很快意识到，没有一种通用的方法可以在不同表面上搬运不同用途的荷载。我们在此举出的例子只是现代搬运方法的几种-龙门吊车用来吊起轮船构件，履带式吊车用来运送火箭，而气垫系统用于搬运体育看台。气垫系统是在荷载下面使用高气压来轻微抬起荷载同时释放气体。这种持续释放的气体支撑着荷载，又能取得很小的摩擦系数。此时荷载是分布在气垫的每个部分的。夏威夷的欧胡体育场是这样设计的：它的看台能从足球赛的矩形看台变成棒球赛的菱形看台。之所以选择气垫系统是因为它能减小摩擦。但光滑的表面也会产生问题，那是风力和坡度都会导致荷载滑离。这时采用活动的摩擦夹具来制动看台。高层建筑采用塔式起重机施工的经验采用塔式起重机进行高层和超高层建筑施工可加速施工速度并取

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