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教研室教研室主任批准日期 华北电力大学科技学院毕业设计(论文)任务书 院系 专业 班、学生 一、毕业设计（论文）课题 110/35/10kV 降压变电站电气一次系统设计 二、毕业设计（论文）工作自 年 月 日起至 年 月 日止三、毕业设计（论文）进行地点： 华 北 电 力 大 学 科 技 学 院 四、毕业设计（论文）的内容要求；原始资料数据和参考资料： 设计任务：1. 主变容量及台数选择。2. 电气主接线设计。 （1#图纸1张）3. 短路电流计算。 （附C语言相关程序）4. 一次电气设备选择。5. 屋内外配电装置设计。（2#图纸34张）6. 总平面布置。 （1#图纸1张） 设计成果：1. 设计说明书、短路电流计算书及程序、设备表各一份。2. 图纸56张。 原始资料：1. 变电站类型：地方降压变电站2. 电压等级：1103510 kV3. 负荷情况 35kV侧：最大 38MW，最小 25 MW，Tmax=6000h，cosj=0.85 10kV侧：最大 25 MW，最小 16 MW，Tmax=6000h，cosj=0.85 负荷性质：工农业生产及城乡生活用电4. 出线回路： 110kV侧 2回(架空线) LGJ-300/35km 35kV侧 6回(架空线) 10kV侧 12回(其中电缆4回)5. 系统情况： (1) 系统经双回路给变电站供电。 (2) 系统110kV母线短路容量为2500MVA。 (3) 系统110kV母线电压满足常调压要求。6. 气象条件： (1) 最高气温40，最低气温30，年平均气温20 (2) 土壤电阻率 250 欧米 (3) 当地雷暴日：40日/年7. 根据需要，可自行补充其它有关资料 参考资料1. 发电厂电气部分课程设计参考资料. 天津大学。2. 电力工程设计手册(册). 西北、东北电力设计院。3. 发电厂、变电所电气接线和布置. 东北电力设计院。负责指导教师 商 淼 指 导 教 师 商 淼 接受设计论文任务开始执行日期 学生签名 华 北 电 力 大 学毕 业 设 计（论 文）附 件外 文 文 献 翻 译学 号：071901010735 姓 名： 郑晓扬 所在院系： 电力工程系 专业班级： 电气07K6 指导教师： 商淼 原文标题： Experience Gained from Electric Power Liberalization 2011年 6 月 10 日 作者Narinder K. Trehan 出处2002年亚太地区输配电会议及展览电力自由化取得的经验摘要电力自由化的变化趋势因世界各地域而不尽相同，部分地区的发展较于其他地区更为成功。日本刚刚对其电力系统放松管制。由于电力产业自由化，英国的用户一年节省了7亿英镑。其他国家如澳大利亚，瑞典，挪威，芬兰也都从电力产业自由化中受益。在美国，联邦能源管理委员会在1996年发布888号和889号命令，开始了电力自由化。这两项规定要求电力公司在平等的基础上对所有用户共享输电系统。电力供应商可以直接用电力公司的输电线路向用户输电。供给和负载之间维护实时平衡是由负荷跟踪服务执行的，它是联邦能源管理委员会第888号命令下的六个指定配套服务之一。若没有负荷跟踪服务，将由其他服务在特殊管制下实现这项功能。管制要求，传输商必须提供其他辅助服务中的一种。在过去十年间，美国的电力需求增长了35%，然而供给电力仅仅增长了18%。由于电力自由化和输电线路的短缺，开放式的传输通道已经让增加的电力输送更接近其稳定性的极限。电力自由化已经在世界其他国家广泛实施，大多已获得成功。世界银行和国际基金组织要求国家接受他们的贷款来实现这些国家的国有电力公司自由化，并作为金融援助的条件。来自世界各地区的工业专家推断问题主要是加利福尼亚州的孤立。关键词自由化，发电机，无功功率，可靠性引言油门的调整实现有功功率的调整，无功功率是由发电机磁场，电压调节器和变压器抽头调整。励磁系统通过调节磁通量水平来控制无功流量是为了使电压在瞬变条件下更接近稳定。一台发电机跳闸离线引起供给和负荷的不平衡可以导致相互关联的频率和电压的下降。为了应对频率下降，发电机在调速器控制下自动增加输出来使频率恢复到60赫兹。发电机在自动发电控制下增加输出在十分钟之内恢复供给和负荷的平衡。随着电力自由化和电力传输线的短缺，开放式的传输通道已经让增加的电力传输运作更接近稳定极限。电力自由化的势头正在世界地区之间蔓延，其中一些地区做的比其他地区更成功。来自加利福尼亚的经验可以为电力自由化的成功转型铺平道路，包括提高过负荷电网稳定性。为了开门降价，电力自由化在加利福尼亚被很大力度的宣传。为了响应联邦能源管理委员会的1996年的888与889号命令，电力供应自由化在加利福尼亚于1998年1月1日实施。这项法规AB-1890允诺到2002年4月1日对于住宅用户减少20%的利率。电力批发市场和客户的选择法案工作了近一年半。在2000年夏天，南加州电力零售价格达到了历史最高水平，有功和无功的短缺又造成的旋转停电。电力自由化已经在世界其他国家广泛而成功的运用了。世界银行和国际基金组织要求国家接受他们的贷款来实现他们国家拥有的供电公司自由化，并作为金融援助的条件。来自世界各地区的业内专家推断问题主要是加利福尼亚州的孤立。开机储备配套服务的开机储备包括旋转备用服务和补充储备服务。旋转备用服务包括使发电机与电力系统同步和响应发电机自动控制。补充储备服务包括发电机已经与电网同步或者待同步的电力供应系统，能够完全承担第一应急或者负荷能在第一应急的十分钟内完全切除。当开机储备低时，旋转停电执行来组织潜在的大范围电网骚乱。 电力自由化取得的经验由电力自由化取得的经验可以总结如下：1）没有新的发电厂建成 虽然对于电力的需求不断增加，例如新兴的数字技术，美国的一些州并没有修建更大的电站。在过去的十年，美国对于电力的需求增长了35%，然而，发电量仅仅增长了18%。加州没有增加一个较大的发电站，虽然由于蓬勃发展的经济（在硅谷新兴的数字技术）对电力需求增大而带来的缺电问题。环境的限制和严格的空气标准，在过去几年已经组织了新的电厂的建设。从那时起，加州大约增加了3000MW的新装机容量，高峰需求也降低了。2）约束电能进出加州的转换经过1996年大范围停电影响的西方国家，流经西北到加州的电能减少了10%，提供了更大的稳定余量。加州北部和南部在CAISO控制区域内，都导致削减的中断和公司客户的需求在高峰期和其他时段的电能约束。径15是高压电力线路，电力来回加州北部和南部。ISO供应商必须解决当加州北部需求需要从加州南部供应时而发生在径15上的拥堵。3）电力交易所（PX）加州用叫做电力交易所的一个集中的电力批发市场取代原有的分散批发市场。为了在供应方面创造竞争，投资者拥有的公用事业被强制购买他们进入电力交易所的剩余电力。电力交易所决定市场的清算价格，提前一天市场，小时日市场和实时市场。提前一天市场有联邦能源管理委员会作为未来的模型提出。加州ISO将根据由PX提供的数据表格，通过匹配需求和供给来保持传输电网的可靠性。ISO将由少于5%的制定来平衡供需。问题在于在加州电力市场冲突之后如何运作PX。因此，是否借据必须从PX买或者卖他们的电力需求需要仔细的观察。4）来自水力发电的不充分的电力传送美国西部地区的干旱环境影响了水电站电力资源的有效传输，致使电能不能像惯例那样像加州输出。举例来说，加州一个重要部分的电能是从美国西北部的水电站传输过来，贯穿太平洋西北部的极端干旱的条件使得水电站能源的的有效输出受损。加州的水库水位远低于正常水平，在太平洋西北部的径流量降低。除了导入到加州的电能传输限制，即使南部的发电量盈余能够帮助加州北部的需求，加州北部和南部的内部连接路径容量也很有限。5)能量守恒的消费者缺乏看到加州的旋转停电之后，居民的电能消费减少了11%。国家向居民提供回扣，企业也使用节能的电器和照明设备。这样的一个方案提供了20%的水电费回扣，如果他们消减20%的耗电量。当发电成本50%或以上的增长，保护显示惊人的跳跃，即，市场价格影响使用。6)长期电力购买合约加州建立了一个短期、现货能源市场，投资者拥有的公用事业不能参与到长期的合同。从电力自由化获得经验表明，应允许与独立的电力生产商建立长期合约。7）由于计划和非计划停机而无法获得的发电机组发电厂成本高不可用的发电机组致使机组进行维修，老机组送外维修，老化的机组，高昂的燃油费用，空气质量的限制。8）不得不由外州的发电机传输电能电力生产商只承诺他们那部分的容量，也在独立系统操作中不得不实时买电能来平衡电力需求来实现他们的利润最大化。这些实用程序无法进入电力长期合同。当因为较高的负荷需求而使现货市场的批发价格上升，公用事业被迫以较高的价格购买电力。在供电短缺时期，独立的电力供应商要价3880美元/MWH代替273美元/MWH。9）5%的电压降落降低电压，提供更多的负载的想法一般应用于东海岸像新英格兰。5%的电压降落实际上减少了用户的需求，同时允许公用事业单位延长在过量需求时的供应。这是一个步骤，它允许ISOS来维持对客户不间断的服务从而避免旋转停电。电压降低5%，总功率储备降低约2%。电压降低5%不影响家庭供电，因为家用电气和电力设备是以标准电压+/-10%电压范围制造的。NEMAMG1-20.45规定低电压电动机在额定负荷和频率，电压上下不超过额定电压的10%时可以正常运作。笔者调查了降低电机工作电压的功率方面，确定降低电压对电机功率的影响可以忽略。10）鼓励在电力自由化中创新先进技术由于在转变监管过程中有限的新传输线路的建设，在很大的电力传输中，例如灵活交流输电系统（FACTS）的先进技术被应用在保持无功和电网电压控制上。灵魂交流输电系统技术运用高速电子控制器，先进的控制技术，光纤，先进的微型计算机提供正确的输出电压，线路阻抗以及它们之间的阻抗角。静止无功补偿器监测电场和磁场，增加并联电容或电抗来减小由于负载稳态和动态平衡带来的电压变化。同步冷凝器，同步发电机，静止无功补偿器，静止同步补偿器，提供了动态无功功率支持来保持动态和暂态稳定和传输能力。电力电子晶闸管用来在微秒级上开关电源。静止无功（伏安特性）支持由线充电，并联和串联电容切换。11）出售化石燃料、燃油及燃气发电机与美国其他州不同，加州的法律规定，要求出售其化石燃料、燃油及燃气发电机，并且必须依靠独立的电力生产商供电。12）以分布式电源代替大型发电站一些消费者已经发现了一种方法，以避免可能发生的拉闸限电。微型燃气轮机、太阳能电池、风力发电机组、燃料电池和柴油发电机组等分布式电源，有助于为这类备用电源创造可能。IEEE 标准 P1547号文件为这些设备提供了标准。若能充分应用，分布式电源将提供低成本、不间断的电力供应。分布式电源，即分散式电源是一种靠近用户的模块化发电单元。分布式电源保证了电力系统在系统故障、拉闸限电时的电力供应，其规模从一千瓦到几十兆瓦不等。总结电力自由化的变化趋势因世界各地域而不尽相同，部分地区的发展较于其他地区更为成功。从电力自由化取得的经验可能为一种成功的转型铺平道路、 美国的一些州，如加利福尼亚州，尽管对电力需求日益增涨却还没有新建大型发电站，造成了不断增长的经济发展面临电力短缺的局势。整个太平洋西北地区的干旱条件已经影响了水电资源可用的输出，不能像以往一样将电力出口出口到美国加州。由于环境的制约和公众的反对，新的发电厂已不能在建。由于缺少新的输电线路，以及输电线路的约束，都影响到大容量的输电系统。回归价格机制可能是处理拉闸限电和电力批发价格飙升的最好的方式。电力自由化已经在世界其他地区成功实施。世界银行和国际基金组织要求国家接受他们的贷款来实现这些国家的国有电力公司电力自由化，并作为金融援助的条件。来自世界各地业内专家认为，这个问题根本来自加州的孤立。致谢我要感谢首席工程师Mr. Jose Calvo，他对电网稳定性方面的深刻认识和深邃的洞察力大大促进这项研究，我向他表示诚挚的谢意。同时也要感谢Mr. Cornelius，他全面的想法和意见对本文的改进起到了显著的作用。4Experience Gained from Electric Power Liberalization Narinder K. Trehan, P.E., Senior Member EEE. US Nuclear Regululoty Commission AbsIracf - The momentum of electric power liberalization (i.e., deregulation) changes from region to region with some regions being more successful than the others. Japan is just starting to liberalize the electric power system The customers in the UK saved f 700 million in one year under electric power liberalization. Other countries such as Australia, Sweden, Norway, and Finland have benefitled fromliberalizationof electric power. In the United States, Federal Energy Regulatory Commission issued Orders Numbers 888 and 889 that started the electric power liberalization in 1996. The Orders mandated electric utilities to open the transmission system on an equal basis to all who utilize it (OASIS). The suppliers can sell electricity directly to lhe consumers using electric utility transmission line. The service of maintaining real time balance between generation and load is performed by load following that is one of the six specified Ancillary Services under FERC Order No 888. Without Load FoUowingService,other service in particular Regulationdoes this function. Regulation is one of the other Ancillary Services that the transmission providers must provide. During the past decade, the demand for electricity in the USA has increased by 35 preen(, whereas, the generation has increased only 18 percent. With electric power liberalization and shortage of transmission lines, open transmission access bas resulted in increased electric power transfers that operate closer to the stability limits. Electric power liberalization has been implemented in other parts of the world mostly with succ-. The World Bank and the Internalional Monetary Fund ask countries receiving their loans to liberalize their state owned power companies as a condition of financial aid. Industry expeN from all regions of the world concluded that the problem is isolated primafily to Calilornia. Index Terns - Liberalization, generators, reactive power, reliability. I. INTRODUCTION transient conditions. A generator tripping offline causes imbalance between generation and load, which can cause a decline in interconnected frequency and voltage. In response to frequency decline, the generators under governor control automatically increase output to restore frequency to 60 Hertz. Generators under automatic generation control (AGC) increase output to restore the imbalance between generation and load within ten minutes. With electric power liberalization and shortage of transmission lines, open transmission access has resulted in increased electric power transfers that operate closer to the stability limits. The momentum of electric power liberalization changes from region to region around the world with some regions being more successful than the others. Experience gained from California could pave the way to successful transformation under electric power liberalization including improving the reliability of the over-stressed electric grid. Electric power liberalization was heavily advertised in California to open the door to lower rates. In response to FERCr 1996 Orders Numbers 888 and 889, the liberalization of electricity supply in California started beginning January I, 1998. The legislation AB-1890promiseda20percentratereduction by April 1,2002 for residential customers. The wholesale electric power market and customers choice program worked for about a year and a half. In the summer of 2000, retail electricity prices in southern California reached all time high, and the shortage of active and reactive power forced rotating blackouts. Electric power liberalization has been implemented in other parts ofthe world mostly with SUCECSS. The World Bank and the International Monetary Fund ask countries receiving their loans to liberalize their state owned power companies as a condition of financial aid. Industry experts from all regions of the world concluded that the problem is isolated primarily to California. Adjustments to real power (Watts) are made by throttle adjustments (governor settings) and adjustments to reactive power(reactivevo1t-ampereorVAR) are made by thegenerator field, voltage regulators and transformer taps. The excitation Operating Reserves under ancillary Services consist of system that controls the reactive power flow by influencing the Spinning Reserve Service and Supplemental Reserve Service. flux level is designed to give close voltage regulation under A Spinning Reserve Service consists of generation 1 1 . OPERATING RESERVES * DISCLAIMER -This paper represena the view of the author and does nal represen1 a Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) psilion on the subjecl covered in the paper. This paper is no1 a substitute for regulalions. and compliance wirh it is not required. Methods and rolutians different from that scl out in the paper could be applied. 0-7803-7525-4/02/$17.00 0 2002 IEEE. 706 synchronized to the power system and responsive to Automatic Generation Control. A Supplemental Reserve Service consists of generation synchronized or capable of being synchronized to the power system that is fully available within ten minutes of the first contingency or load fully removable from the power system within ten minutes of the first contingency. When the operating reserves are low, rotating blackouts are enforced to prevent potential widespread disturbances to the electric transmission grid. 1 1 1 . EXPERIENCE GAINED UNDER ELECTRIC The experience gained under electric power liberalization can POWER LIBERALIZATION be summarized as follows: 1) No new Generating Plants built Some states in the United States had not added major power stations even with increasing demand for power such as emerging digital technology. During the past decade, the demand for electricity in the USA has increased by 35 percent, whereas, the generation has increased only 18 percent. California that had not added a major power station even with an ever increasing demand for power due to a booming economy (emergingdigital technology in the Silicon valley) ran short of electricity. Environmental constraints and stringent air standards have stopped the consuuction of new power plants in the previous years. Since then, about 3000 M W of new generating capacity has been added in California and the peak demand has also decreased. 2) Constrained Power Exchanges from California Out and into California After widespread outages that affected Western states in 1996, the power flow along the Northwest-to-California Interties was decreased by IO% to provide a greater margin of stability. Transmission constraints between northern and southern California within the CAISO control area have resulted in the curtailment of interruptible and firm customer demands both during peak periods and at other times due to power limitations. Path 15 is a group of high-voltage power lines that feed electricity back and forth between Northern and Southern California. IS0 operators have to deal with path congestion that occurs on Path 15 when demand in Northern California draws generation from the southern end of the state. 3) Market Power Exchange (PXJ California replaced the existing decentralized wholesale power marketwithacentralized wholesale power market calledPower Exchange. To create competition on the supply side, the investor owned utilities (IOU) were forced to buy electricity produced by their remaining power plants into the PX. Power Exchange determines the market clearing prices, Day Ahead Market, Hour Ahead Market and the Real Time Market. Day Ahead market is proposed by Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) as the model of the future. California IS0 will maintain reliableoperationofthe transmissiongrid by matching the demand the supply, according to schedule provided by the PX. Less than 5% would be scheduled by the IS0 in the real time to balance demand and supply. The question arises how PX is going to operate after the clash of California power market. Therefore, the requirements whether the IOUs must buy and sell all their power needs from the PX needs a closer look 4) Inadequate Power Transfer from Hydroelecrric Generating Stations Drought conditions in western pans of the USA had affected the available output of hydroelectric power resources and could notexport electricity to Californiaas they traditionally did. For example, a significant portion of electricity used in California is imported from hydroelectric power in the Northwestern United States. Extreme drought conditions throughout the Pacific Northwest affected the available output of hydroelectric power resources. Reservoir levels in California fell well below normal levels and runoff in the Pacific Northwest fell low. Besides the transmission limitations for importing power into California, the internal capacity linking (path 15) northern and southern California is also limited even if surplus generation from the south is available to help meet the demand in northern California. 5) Lack o f Conservation of Energy by Consumers After seeing the rotating blackouts in California, the residents reduced power consumption by I I percent. The state offers rebates to residents and businesses using energy efficient appliances and lighting. One such program offers a 20 percent rebate on utility bills if they cut power consumption by 20 percent. When power cost increased by 50% or more, conservation showed a surprising jump i.e., market price impacts usage. 6) Long-term Power Purchases Contracts California set up a short term, spot money energy market and investor owned utilities were not allowed to enter long term contracts. The experienced gained from electric power liberalization shows that the utilities should be allowed long- term contracts with the independent power producers. 7) Unavailabiliry of Generating Units due IO Planned and Unplanned Outages The high unavailability of the generating units has resulted fromunits out for maintenance, older units being out for repair, aging of older units, high fuel prices, and air quality restrictions. 8) Reluctance of out-of-state generators to deliver power 707 The power producers would commit only part of their capacity and would maximize their profits when the independent system operator had to buy electricity in real time to meet the electric demand. The utilities could not enter long- term contracts for power. When spot market wholesale prices increased because of higher load demand, the utilities were forced to buy power at higher prices. One independent power producerchargedasmuchas$3,880perMWHinsteadof$273 per MWH during a period of short supply 9) A Five Percent Voltage Reduction The idea of supplying more loads at reduced voltages commonly used on the east coast such as in New England could be used. A 5% voltage reductionessentiallyreduces customers demand and allows a utility to stretch out its supply during times of excess demand. This is one step that allows ISOs to maintain unintermpted service to customers thus avoiding rotating blackouts. The overall savings in power for a 5 percent voltage reduction is about 2 percent. A 5 percent voltage reduction does not affect the house service as standard household appliances and electrical equipment are manufactured with +/- IO percent voltage tolerance. NEMA MG 1-20.45 states that low voltage motors will operate successfully, under running conditions at rated load and frequency with a voltage not more than 10 percent above or below rated voltage. The author looked into the efficiency aspect of running the motor at reduced voltage and determined that there is a negligible effect on the efficiency of a motor mnning at a reduced voltage. IO) Encourage Innovalion in Advonced Technologies during Power Liberalization Due to the limited construction of new transmission lines during transition to regulation, advanced technologies such as Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS) could be used in maintaining the reactive and voltage control of the electrical grid during heavy power transfers. FACTS technology uses high speed electronic controllers, advanced control technology, fibre optics, and advanced microcomputers to provide the correct transmission voltage, line impedance and the phase angle between them. Static VAR Compensators monitors electric and magnetic fields and adds shunt capacitance or inductive reactance as needed to reduce voltage variations caused by the loads for steady state and dynamic balance. Synchronous condensers, synchronous generators, static VAR compensators (SVCs), and static synchronous compensators (STATCOMs) provide dynamic reactive power support to maintain dynamic and transient stability and transmission capability. Power electronics using thyristors are used to switch power on or off in microseconds. Static VAR (volt ampere reactive) support is provided by line charging, series and switched shunt capacitors. 11) Selling of Fossil, Oil-fied and Cas-fired Generators Unlike other states in the United States, regulation required California to sell its fossil, oil-fired and gas-fired powered generators and had to rely on independent power producers to supply electricity. 12) Replacement of Lorge Power Plants with Distributed Power Resources Some consumers have discovered a way to insulate themselves for the possibility of rolling blackouts. Distributed power resources such as microturbines, solar cells, wind turbines. fuel cells, diesel generators help to smooth the way for this alternate source. IEEE Std. P1547Draft provides criteria for such devices. If fully implemented, distributed power would provide low cost, unintermpted power supply. Distributed power or dispersed power is a modular electric generating unit near the point of use. It ensures electric power during system outages, rolling blackouts. Distributed Power ranges from less than a kilowatt to tens of MW in size. IV. CONCLUSION The momentum of electric power deregulation changes from region to region with some regions being more successful than the others. Experience gained from electric power liberalization could pave the way to a successful transformation. Some states in the United States such as California that had not added a major power station even with an ever increasing demand for power due to a booming economy ran short of electricity. Drought conditions throughout the Pacific Northwest had affected the available output of hydroelectric power sources and could not export the electricity to California as it traditionally did. Due to environmental constraints and public opposition, new power generating stations were not built. Under-scheduling of loads and generation, unscheduled outages, unusual weather conditions and reluctance of out-of-state generators to deliver power fearing that the utilities could no1 pay them could affect the electric power supply. Due to shortage of new transmission lines, and the transmission line constraints could also affect the bulk power delivery system. A limited price control may be the hest way to handle a situation of rolling blackouts and surging wholesale electricity prices. Electric power liberalization has been implemented in other parts of the world with success. The World Bank and the International Monetary Fund ask countries receiving their loans to liberalize their state owned power companies as a condition of financial aid. Industry experts from all regions of the world concluded that the problem is isolated primarily to California. V. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank my Chief Engineer Mr. Jose Calvo whose deep knowledge and insight on electric grid stability contributed greatly to this work. I sincerely wish to express my 708 deep gratitude to him. I also would like to thank Mr. Cornelius H. Holden who provided thoughtful opinion and ideas that significantly improved this paper. VI. REFERENCES I. Narinder K. Trrehan, 2002. Openling Power System Under Reduced Generation Availability.Pmeedinerafthe lEEE Power Enrimerim Suciety, 2. Nvrinder K. Trehan. 1997. Electric Grid Stability and its Impact on Nuclcm Power Generating Srillions. Promedines of the EEE 32d Nuclear - Science SymDmium and Medical 1maeinK Conference. Volume: 3,Paes: 17J 3. Natindcr K. Trehun. 2000. Ancillaly Services - Reactivc and Voltage Con1ml:Prucredinesofthe IEEE Pwer EneinrenncSocietv. Winer Hcetine 4. M.A. Lumoureur. 2WI. Evolution of Electric Utility Restrnctunng in the UK.lEEE Powerene. Review. Volume: 3. P K s : 1341-1346 5. N. Trehun. I.D. Kueck. cl al. 1998. A discussion of Degraded Valrage relaying far Nuclcar Generating Stationi. IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science, Vol. 45 6. P. Kundur. 1994. Power Syrtem Stability and Control. McGnw-Hill 7. R.T. Ryerly and E.W. Kimbark. 1999. Stability of Large Electric Power 8. Elizabeth A. Rretn. 2000. PJM Interconnection: Model of a Smooth Operator. IEEE Spectrnm 9. William V. Hassenzuhl. 2WO. AppliclionofSuperconductivityto Electric Power Systems. IEEE Pwr.Ene.Review 10. M. Sham Griltiih. 1978. EEE Tmmctins on Industry Applicarionr. a n u . m?. volume: 2.2002, paces: ici-140 System. Vol. IA-14. No.6 I I. H. K. Clark. 1990. New Challenge: Voltage Stability. IEEE Power EnKineetine Review I?. CanferenceNERC Planning Standards. 1997, North American Electric Reliability Council 13. A Position Paper of the Electric-System Reliability Task Force -Secretmy of Energy Advisory Bund, 1998 Ancillary Services and Bulk-Power 14. A. Edrir. ZOW. FACTS Technology Development: An Update. Power Engincerine Review 15. R. D. Rorevear. ?000.Power Cables in ?Is Centurv Enerev - Energy Srongc. IEEE Power EneineerinK Review 17. Gabriel Ejek. 1998,TwoNewFunctions hrArsersingSecurityin Power systems. 18. JW. Pope, 1997. Reliability in Tnnaition. Southern Services Inc. Trvnrmisrion & Distribution world 19. Earl Hazan. 1997. A Word of Caution. Transmission & Distribution World 20. Nonh American Electric Reliability Council. 2001. 2WI Summer AsSessmeni 21. Depanmentof Energy. 1996. The Electric PowerOutsrgerinthe Westem United States. July 2-3. 1996. Repon to the President 22. Disturbsncr Repon for the Power Outage that Occurred on thc Western
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