中英文-珍贵-跨文化交际学概论课件资料.doc

I. Culture and Intercultural CommunicationCulture:l Culture may be defined as what a society does and thinks. (Sapir, 1921)l Culture refers to the total way of life of particular groups of people. It includes everything that a group of people thinks, says, does, and makes. (R. Kohls, 1979) l Culture is a learned set of shared interpretations about beliefs, values, and norms, which affect the behavior of a relatively large group of people.文化是习得的一套关于信仰、价值观、规范的公认的解释，这些信仰、价值观、规范对相当大人类群体的行为产生影响。The Characteristics of Culture:1. Culture is not innate; it is learned;2. Culture is transmissible from person to person, group to group, and generation to generation;3. Culture is a dynamic system that changes continuously over time;4. Culture is selective; (every culture represents a limited choice of behavior patterns)5. Culture is composed of interrelated facets;6. Culture is ethnocentric (centeredness on ones own group). The American sociolinguist D. Hymes pointed out that people with communicative competence should know when, where and what to speak to whom and how.Models of communication Theoretically, the model of communication is always described in the following way:Communication is exchanging information in the form of messages, symbols, thoughts, signs and opinions.The Ingredients of Culturel Language;l Religion;l Values and attitudes;l Education;l Social organization;l Technology and material culture;l Politics;l LawIntercultural Communication (IC)l In its most general sense, IC refers to those occasions when a member of one culture produces a message for consumption by a member of another culture. (p70, Samovar & Porter)l More precisely, IC refers to communication between people whose culture perceptions and symbol systems are distinct enough to alter the communication event. (p70, Samovar & Porter)跨文化交际: 指拥有不同文化认知和符号体系的人们之间进行的交际。胡文仲：具有不同文化背景的人从事交际的过程就是跨文化交际。Time orientation: (Hall, 1976):美国人类学家霍尔（Edward Hall）在超越文化（Beyond Culture）一书中首次区分了两种不同的时间观念,即“单向计时制”（monochronic time）和“多向计时制”（polychronic time).1. Monochronic Time (M-Time)It schedules one event at a time. In these cultures time is perceived as a linear structure just like a ribbon stretching from the past into the future. e.g. American People1.1 单向计时制重视日程安排、阶段时间和准时;1.2 认为“时间是线性的、可分割的，就像一条道路或带子向前伸展到未来，向后延伸到过去”。1.3 认为同时做两件事几乎有点不道德;1.4 持有这种时间取向的英美人士把时间看成具体实在（tangible）的东西, 可以节省（save）、花费（spend）、赚得（earn）、浪费（waste）、失去（lose）、弥补（make up）、计量(measure）、 甚至当成商品一样买卖（buy, sell）和拥有（have）。 美国人特别强调把时间分割成不同的时段来安排活动,强调守时, 严格按照日程一次做一件事情（do one thing at a time）. 2. Polychronic Time (P-Time)2.1 P-time schedules several activities at the same time. It is flexible and more humanistic. 2.2 People from P-time system emphasize the involvement of people more than schedules. They do not see appointments as ironclad commitments and often break them. e.g. Chinese, Latin American, Arab and most Asian cultures Negative impacts in IC: 1. Ethnocentrism2. Anxiety and Uncertainty3. Stereotypes4. Prejudice5. Discrimination & Racism1. EthnocentrismIf people believe that their culture is the only true culture, they will discriminate against people who manifest cultural norms that fail to correspond to their values and behaviors. 2. Anxiety and Uncertainty2.1 Anxiety refers to the feeling of being uneasy, tense, worried, or apprehensive about what might happy.2.2 Uncertainty refers to our inability to predict or explain others behavior, feelings, attitudes, behavior, or values. Our ability to communicate effectively is based, at least in part, on our ability to manage our anxiety and uncertainty.Anxiety and Uncertainty Management (AUM)Theory (Gudykunst, 1995)：AUM management theory suggests that effective interpersonal and intergroup communication is a function of how individuals manage the anxiety and uncertainty they experience when communicating with others.3. Stereotypes3.1 Stereotypes are a form of generalization about some group of people, or a means of organizing images into fixed and simple categories that are used to stand for the entire collection of people. (Walter Lippmann)3.2 Human beings have a psychological need to categorize and classify. 4. PrejudiceIt refers to negative attitudes towards other people that are based on faulty and inflexible stereotypes. It is an unfair, biased, or intolerant attitude towards another group of people. ( Lusting & Koester)5. DiscriminationIt refers to the behavioral manifestations of the prejudice, it can be thought of as prejudice “in action”. ( Lusting & Koester)RacismThe belief that race accounts for differences in human character or ability and that a particular race is superior to others.Ethnocentrism: If people believe that their culture is the only true culture, they will discriminate against people who manifest cultural norms that fail to correspond to their values and behaviors. Individualism and Collectivism Individualism-collectivism is the major dimension of cultural variability used to explain cross-cultural differences and similarities in communication across culture.Individualistic Culture (liberalism): individuals tend to define themselves by the extent to which they are different from, rather than similar to others. People are encouraged to display self- confidence and assertiveness, disclosure of personal thoughts and feelings. Collectivistic culture (Confucianism): places little value on individual identity and great value on group identity. Going ones own way is not valued; uniformity and conformity are stressed.1. IndividualismIndividuals tend to define themselves by the extent to which they are different from，rather than similar to others. People are encouraged to display self-confidence and assertiveness, disclosure of personal thoughts and feelings. Individualistic cultures: Australia, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, U.K., Ireland, Isreal, Italy, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, Sweden, Switerland，U.S.A.2. Collectivism Collectivist cultures place little value on individual identity and great value on group identity. They have been labeled as “we” cultures because basic unit is the in-group or collective.Collectivistic cultures: Brazil, China, Colombia, Egypt, Greece, India, Japan, Kenya, Korea, Mexico, Nigeria, Pakistan, Peru, Saudi Arabia, Thailand, Venezuela, Vietnam. Individualism-collectivism is expected to affect communication mainly through : Influence on group identities; Differentiation between ingroup and outgroup communication. Both individualism and collectivism exist in all cultures; Self-orientation involves the “pursuit of private interests”; Collectivity orientation involves the “pursuit of the common interests of the collectivity”.Comparing major characteristics:Individualistic culture:l Emphasis on individuals goals, self-realization;l Little differences between ingroup and outgroup communication;l Independent self construal - “I” identity;l Low-context communication which is direct, precise, and absolute. Collectivistic culture:l Emphasis on ingroups goals-fitting into the ingroup;l Large differences between ingroup and outgroup communication;l Interdependent self construal-“we” identity;l High-context communication which is indirect, imprecise, and probabilistic. High-context communication: Most of the information is either in the physical context or internalized in the person, while very little is in the code, explicit, transmitted part of the message(indirect, ambiguous and understated(轻描淡写) - collectivistic cultures). Low-context communication:The mass of information is given in the explicit code (direct, explicit, open, precise, and consistent with ones feelings - individualistic cultures).II. Cross-gender communicationThe closer you are to someone, and the longer you have been close, the more you have to lose when you open your mouth. - Deborah TannenWhy so?1. We dont realize that communication is inherently ambiguous; 2. Conversational styles differ;3. We expect to be understood if there is love .Gender-based communication styles:1. rapport - report 2. connection - status3. problems - solutions 4. listening - lecturing5. Intimacy - independence6. relationship - information7. Inclusive - exclusive 8. novice - expert9. community - contestHumans are born with different biological sexes, and their culture helps them to be educated into different genders through the process of socialization. Gendered women and men are considered two different branches of subculture. In this sense, cross-gender communication is a kind of cross-culture communication.Sternbergs Triangular Theory of Love: There are eight types of intimate relationships; Intimate relationships could be analyzed by examining three components:1. Intimacy - feelings of closeness, sharing, communication, and support;2. Passion - intense desire to be united with the loved one;3. Commitment - both the short-term decision to love another and the longer term commitment to maintain it.Brown and Levinsons notion of politeness strategies:The face-saving view of politeness drives from Brown and Levinson (1978), and it would be no exaggeration to say that it has been most influential in providing a paradigm for linguistic politeness which goes beyond a mere extension of the Gricean maxims (CP: 数量、质量、关系、方式). - Richard J. WattsBrown and Levinsons negative and positive politeness strategies:积极礼貌的核心： 寻找共同点，表达赞成和赞美，保持亲密关系。消极礼貌的核心： 用于适当增加距离，表达尊重和给予自由，减少冲突，使交流得以顺利进行。Functions of Brown and Levinsons negative and positive politeness strategies:有意识地应用礼貌策略，可以在充分发挥亲密关系作用的同时，适当调整距离，减少存在于亲密关系基础中阻碍交流的障碍，提高交流的质量。Mark Twain once said, “I can live for two months on a good compliment.” Many couples have never learned the tremendous power of verbally affirming each other. Solomon further noted, “An anxious heart weighs a man down, but a kind word cheers him up. - Gary ChapmanSome of the Positive politeness strategies:1. Offering Compliments ;2. Using in-group identity markers;3. Seeking agreement;4. Avoiding disagreement;5. Telling jokes;6. Implying knowledge of Hearers wants and willingness to fit the wants;7. Offering promises;8. Being optimistic;9. Including both sides in the activity;10. Giving or asking for reasons;11. Assuming reciprocity;12. Giving gifts (goods, sympathy, understanding, cooperation);Arthur Schopenhauers “Hedgehogs Dilemma”:Men and women are like hedgehogs coming together for warmth in winter. They will hurt each other if they are too close, but they will feel cold if too far.Some of the Negative politeness strategies:1. Asking questions (indirect request);2. Being pessimistic;3. Minimizing the imposition by using “just, only, a little”;4. Giving deferene;5. Apologizing;6. Impersonalizing the Speaker and the Hearer.III. Culture Shock(文化休克）l Troublesome feelings such as depression, loneliness, confusion, inadequacy, hostility, frustration, and tension, caused by the loss of familiar cues from the home culture. (Linell Davis).l A common experience of people who have been suddenly transplanted abroad.(Xu Lisheng).l Culture shock is used to describe the emotional rollercoaster that someone experiences when living in a new country. Anyone that has worked and lived in a foreign country will experience culture shock of some sort.Culture shock is caused by the anxiety that results from losing all our familiar signs and symbols or social contact.Physical and psychological symptoms of culture shock: Feelings of estrangement, anger, hostility, indecision, frustration, unhappiness, sadness, loneliness, homesickness, even physical illness: absent-minded stare, a feeling of helplessness, a desire for dependence on long-term residents of ones own nationality, headaches, stomachaches, dizziness, excessive sleepiness; Views his/her new world out of resentment: being angry at others for not understanding him/her, or filled with self-pity.Stage 1 Excitement (honeymoon period)u The individual experiences a holiday or honeymoon period with their new surroundings.u They:.Feel very positive about the culture .Are overwhelmed with impressions.Find the new culture exotic and are fascinated.Are passive, meaning they have little experience of the culture Stage 2 - WithdrawalThe individual now has some more face to face experience of the culture and starts to find things different, strange and frustrating.They:.Find the behaviour of the people unusual and unpredictable.Begin to dislike the culture and react negatively to the behaviour .Feel anxious.Start to withdraw.Begin to criticize, mock or show animosity to the peopleStage 3 - AdjustmentThe individual now has a routine, feels more settled and is more confident in dealing with the new culture.They: Understand and accept the behaviour of the people Feel less isolated Regains their sense of humorStage 4:The individual now feels “at home”.They: Enjoy being in the culture; Functions well in the culture; Prefer certain cultural traits of the new culture rather than their own; Adopt certain behaviours from the new culture. Experts agree that culture shock has stages and all agree that once people get beyond the initial and most difficult stages, life in a new country becomes a lot better. IV. Self-conceptThose who know and know that they know ( follow them)Those who know but dont know that they know (enlighten them) Those who dont know and know they dont know (guide them) Those who dont know and dont know they dont know (avoid them) 1. Define Self-concept 西方最早比较系统地研究自我概念的心理学家是威廉詹姆士（James W 1890）。他指出自我具有二元性, 即存在两类自我:主我( I) 与客我(Me) 。“主我”是知者( Knower) , 是自我中积极的知觉、思考的部分, “客我”是自我中被注意、思考或知觉的客体, 后者就是自我概念。在他看来, 主我积极地建构着客我。 Cooley提出了“镜中自我”概念。在他看来, 自我是与别人面对面互动的产物。别人好像一面镜子, 一个人的自我意识是他从别人的心里看到别人怎么看他。个人想象他人对自己的看法, 并把这些看法内化, 然后整合成自我意识。 约瑟夫认为，自我概念就是“你对自己是谁的印象。它是你如何理解你对自己的优势、弱点、能力、局限的感觉和想法。它的发展来自别人对你持有和表露出来的印象、你在自己和别人之间所进行的比较、 你在种族、民族、性别、和性别角色等方面获得的文化经验以及你对自己的想法和行为的评估” 自我概念就是人们对自己是谁和是什么的全部态度及信仰的总集合，是人们内心对自己所保有的比较稳定的画像。自我概念是个体对自己看法的总和, 一旦获得了这种对自己的知觉, 个体就倾向于以与这种感觉相一致的方式行动。2. Develop self-awarenessSelf Awareness is having a clear perception of your personality, including strengths, weaknesses, thoughts, beliefs, motivation, and emotions. It also allows you to understand other people, how they perceive you, your attitude and your responses to them in the moment. Self awareness is the first step in creating what you want and mastering your future. Where you focus your attention, your emotions, reactions, personality and behavior determine where you go in life. 审视Johari Window中的四个自我(开放的自我、盲目的自我、隐藏的自我、不为人知的自我)对提升自我意识，进而增强交流的能力很有帮助:2.1 每个人都要认识到有几个不同的自我存在。2.2 增加开放的自我，可以减少盲目和隐藏的自我，这样，自我意识会得到增加。2.3 学会同自己对话，诚实地不断检查自己，直面隐藏的自我，避免产生不真实的自我概念。 Self-identity is the awareness of ones unique identity.Self concept is the mental image or the way that one perceives oneself. Self identity (自我认同，自我同一性 ) is when one is aware of and can identify with oneself as a separate and (unique) individual. It states who I am and what I stand for, and what I am committed to whether it be a job or my role in life.V. Intercultural Non-verbal CommunicationVerbal intercultural communications happens when people from different cultural backgrounds communicate with each other by using language.当来自不同文化背景的人们用语言进行交流时言语交际就发生了。Paralanguage(副语言)refers to the rate ,pitch and volume qualities of the voice,which interrupt or temporarily take the place of speech and affect the meaning of a message是与口语交际有关，指说的速度，音高，和质量，这些要素会打断或临时取代语言并影响信息的语意表达.时间行为：Chronemics is the study of how people perceive and use time.是指研究人们如何看待和使用时间。时空行为：proxemics refers to the perception and use of space including territoriality and personal space.指对空间的认知和使用时空进行沟通，包括地盘性和个人空间。目光语：The study of communications sent by the eyes is termed oculesics.研究目光传递的交流信息。气味行为Olfactics：The study of communication via smell is called Olfactics对通过味道进行交流的研究。触觉行为Haptics:refers to communicating through the use of bodily context .通过身体接触来进行交流。身势语行为Kinesics：is the term used for communicating through various types of body movements including facial expressions, gestures, posture and stance ,and other mannerisms that may accompany or replace oral messages.指交际时所使用的不同类型的动作，包括表情，手势，姿势，和其他代替语言传达信息的行为举止。色彩学Chromatics: refers to the study of color use in affecting peoples mood,emotions,and impression of others.指影响你的情绪，情感和对他人的印象的颜色的研究。移情Empathy: being able to see and feel things from other peoples points of view能够以他人的观点看待和感受事情。非语言交际与语言交际在五个方面存在区别：首先，语言交际遵循语法规则，具有严谨的结构，而非语言交际却没有正式的规则和模式，没有固定的结构，非语言交际行为往往需要综合分析周围的情况才能确定。第二，语言交际使用特定的符号，而非语言交际却没有一套具有明确意义的符号。第三，语言交际在讲话的时候进行，在停止讲话的时候中断，时断时停，是非连续性的。非语言交际是连续不断的。第四，语言是后天习得的，而不是生而知之。非语言交际的手段一部分是人类的本能，有些是后天习得的。最后，从神经生理学的角度看，在从事语言交际时大脑的左半球在进行工作，负责处理语言刺激，作信息分析和推理。而非语言交际由大脑右半球处理。非语言交际通常与语言交际结合进行，在不同的情况下起着不同的作用，大致上起补充、否定、重复、调节、替代或强调的作用。一般来说，在语言交际和非语言交际传达的信息冲突时，人们倾向于相信后者。眼神女性比男性更多地注视对方，因为妇女比男人更重视人际关系，更重视人们之间的感情交流。眼神还对话轮转换起调节的作用。手势同一手势在不同的文化中却可以表示并不相同的意义。即使在同一民族中，由于地区习俗的不同，同一手势也可能会具有不同意义。有些手势是某一文化所特有的，也有跨越文化的手势。身势总的来说，南欧、中东、拉丁美洲地区的人们讲话时动作较多，动作幅度也很大；北欧、英美人动作较少，幅度也较小。中国、日本、朝鲜人也属于动作较少、幅度较小这一类。上课坐姿，中国强调集体、纪律、合作，美国强调个人、自由、发展自我，无拘无束的自由讨论。姿势与地位的高低有一定的联系。姿势与性别也有着密切的关系。服饰三项功能：舒适、保护遮盖与文化真是。它作为文化标志的作用愈来愈大。在现代社会中，衣着象征身份地位，或表明职业。场合与服装的要求有着密切的关系。触摸触摸分为五类：功能、社交、友