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Aircraft Landing Gear LayoutsMost aircraft today have three landing gear. Two main landing gear struts located near the middle of the aircraft usually support about 90% of the planes weight while a smaller nose strut supports the rest. This layout is most often referred to as the tricycle landing gear arrangement. However, there are numerous other designs that have also been used over the years, and each has its own advantages and disadvantages. Lets take a closer look at the various undercarriage options available to engineers.Tailwheel or Taildragger GearThough the tricycle arrangement may be most popular today, that was not always the case. The tailwheel undercarriage dominated aircraft design for the first four decades of flight and is still widely used on many small piston-engine planes. The taildragger arrangement consists of two main gear units located near the center of gravity (CG) that support the majority of the planes weight. A much smaller support is also located at the rear of the fuselage such that the plane appears to drag its tail, hence the name. This tail unit is usually a very small wheel but could even be a skid on a very simple design.What makes this form of landing gear most attractive is its simplicity. The gear are usually relatively lightweight, and the two main gear can also be easily encased in streamlined fairings to produce low drag in flight. Another potential advantage results from the fact that the plane is already tilted to a large angle of attack as it rolls down the runway. This attitude helps to generate greater lift and reduce the distance needed for takeoff or landing. This attitude is also an advantage on propeller-driven planes since it provides a large clearance between the propeller tips and the ground. Furthermore, taildragger planes are generally easier for ground personnel to maneuver around in confined spaces like a hangar.However, the greatest liability of this landing gear layout is its handling characteristics. This design is inherently unstable because the planes center of gravity is located behind the two main gear. If the plane is landing and one wheel touches down first, the plane has a tendency to veer off in the direction of that wheel. This behavior can cause the aircraft to turn in an increasingly tighter ground loop that may eventually result in scraping a wingtip on the ground, collapsing the gear, or veering off the runway. Landing a taildragger can be difficult since the pilot must line up his approach very carefully while making constant rudder adjustments to keep the plane on a straight path until it comes to a stop. Many taildragger designs alleviate these handling problems by fitting a tailwheel that can be locked instead of swiveling on a castor. Locking the tailwheel helps keep the plane rolling in a straight line during landing.Another disadvantage of the taildragger is poor pilot visibility during taxiing since he is forced to peer over a nose that is tilted upward at a steep angle. It is also often difficult to load or unload heavy cargos because of the steep slope of the cabin floor. Similarly, pilots and passengers are forced to walk uphill during boarding and downhill after arrival. Many aircraft also rely on gravity to bring fuel from tanks to the engine, and some planes have been known to have difficulty starting the engine because it is uphill from the fuel supply.Good examples of taildragger aircraft include the Spitfire and DC-3 of World War II.Tricycle or Nosewheel GearNow the most popular landing gear arrangement, the tricycle undercarriage includes two main gear just aft of the center of gravity and a smaller auxiliary gear near the nose. The main advantage of this layout is that it eliminates the ground loop problem of the taildragger. This arrangement is instead a stable design because of the location of the main gear with respect to the center of gravity. As a result, a pilot has more latitude to land safely even when he is not aligned with the runway.Furthermore, the tricycle arrangement is generally less demanding on the pilot and is easier to taxi and steer. The tricycle gear also offers much better visibility over the nose as well as a level cabin floor to ease passenger traffic and cargo handling. A further plus is that the aircraft is at a small angle of attack so that the thrust of the engine is more parallel to the direction of travel, allowing faster acceleration during takeoff. In addition, the nosewheel makes it impossible for the plane to tip over on its nose during landing, as can sometimes happen on taildraggers. The greatest drawback to tricycle gear is the greater weight and drag incurred by adding the large nosewheel strut. Whereas many taildraggers can afford to use non-retracting gear with minimal impact on performance, planes with nosewheels almost always require retraction mechanisms to reduce drag. Some planes with tricycle gear also have difficulty rotating the nose up during takeoff because the main wheels are located so close to the elevator, and there may be insufficient control effectiveness. Similarly, the closeness to the rudder reduces its effectiveness in counteracting crosswinds. Another critical factor when designing tricycle gear is to properly balance the load carried by the main gear versus the nosewheel. Too little load on the main wheels reduces their braking effectiveness while too little on the nosewheel reduces its steering effectiveness. Careful balancing of weight is also important to prevent the plane from tipping back on its tail while at rest on the ground.There are many examples of aircraft with tricycle landing gear, including the F-16 and Cessna 172.SummaryLanding gear serves three primary purposes-to provide a support for the plane when at rest on the ground, to provide a stable chassis for taxiing or rolling during takeoff and landing, and to provide a shock absorbing system during landing. Regardless, all of these tasks are secondary to the planes primary role as an efficient mode of travel through the air. To aircraft designers, landing gear are nothing more than a necessary evil since planes are designed primarily for their performance in flight rather than on the ground. There have even been attempts over the years to eliminate landing gear entirely. The most extreme case was a study done by the Royal Navy to see if a jet plane could make a belly landing on the deck of an aircraft carrier coated with a rubberized surface. If successful, the method would eliminate the need for the very strong and heavy landing gear used on carrier-based aircraft. Unfortunately, the method proved impractical, but it shows the lengths some will go to while attempting to eliminate the need for landing gear!We have seen that landing gear come in many varieties and each option has its own advantages and disadvantages. Selecting the best arrangement for a given aircraft is a trade-off between these strengths and weaknesses as they apply to the environment the plane is designed for. As a result, designers try to select the simplest, smallest, lightest, and least expensive solution possible to do the job while maintaining safety. That is why most planes only have three landing gear rather than four because fewer gear weigh less, require less structure aboard the plane, take up less space when retracted, and generate less drag.FORD FOCUS VIGNALE CONCEPTSitting alongside the all-new Focus, the Focus Vignale Concept on display at the Shanghai International Motor Show is a one-off design study that explores the potential for future Focus derivatives.The Italian Connection The Focus Vignale Concept takes its inspiration and name from the renowned Italian designer, Alfredo Vignale (1913 1969), who has an historical connection with Fords European design heritage. His Carrozzeria Vignale company produced many stylish, coachbuilt sports cars during the 1950s and 1960s and joined Ford Motor Companys De Tomaso Automobili in 1969. Metamorphosis of Mood and FunctionThe Focus Vignale Concept is actually two cars in one ideal for changing moods and environments. Regardless of the weather, the Focus Vignale Concept conveys a strong emotional appeal that Ford designers believe will inspire longing and a touch of envy. As a stylish and sporty coup that is just as appealing in autumn and winter months, the car brings elegance combined with rational attributes of luxury, comfort and safety. Its profile is dynamic and distinctive, and promises the rewarding driving experience that comes as standard in all Ford cars.Yet at the push of a button, the coup transforms effortlessly into an open-top convertible. Its bootlid silently tilts open and its retractable hardtop folds backward to stow cleanly in the boot, morphing the vehicle to inspire carefree emotions of open-top, wind-in-the-hair motoring. As the car assumes its open-top role, the quality of craftsmanship and premium materials is clearly evident, highlighted by well-executed design touches inspired by the heyday of the Italian sports car. Just one of these design facets in the Focus Vignale Concepts sweeping profile is the door handle. A modern execution of designs found in Alfredo Vignales spyders from the Sixties, it is elegantly sculpted in a lozenge shape of polished aluminium. Yet, unlike the Sixties original, a simple, intuitive finger push now activates the doorcatch electronically, allowing the door to be pulled open with style and attitude.Premium Appeal Finished in a subtly soft and light exterior colour, Amalfi, which evokes seaside freshness, the Focus Vignale Concept visually communicates sophistication and luxury.The exterior is highlighted by the use of bright polished aluminium which evokes the chrome of past grand touring cars from Italy. A narrow, polished aluminium strip stretches horizontally along the length of the vehicle at its sills, emphasising the confidence of the vehicles stance, and it is mirrored by another horizontal strip at the lower edge of the side window graphic. The Focus Vignale Concepts glass panels are uniquely coloured in Acqua, a blue-green tint that adds an air of exclusivity to its personality and elegantly subdues hues inside the vehicle when it is in coup mode. When the car transforms into a convertible, the resulting contrast when the sun streams onto the interior accentuates the concept vehicles dual personality.A new look grille, finished distinctively in chrome, also evokes a feeling that the Focus Vignale Concept could be from an expensive premium brand. Its horizontal bars clearly differentiate the concept vehicle from the new Focus range, hinting at a possible future design direction. Lower aluminium touches continue at the front and rear of the vehicle, giving visual emphasis to front air ducts and rear exhaust outlets and adding a bold strip along the edge of the bootlid between the tail lamps.Deep, passionately sculpted 20-inch wheels with wide, sweeping spokes provide an eye-pleasing combination of polished aluminium outer surfaces with machined aluminium on visible inner surfaces. Emphasis on LuxuryInside the Ford Focus Vignale Concept, the emphasis is on luxury and the same attention to craftsmanship found in the production Focus models.Subtle Acqua accents are also featured in the interior. Reminiscent of Italian sports cars seat stitching, the contrast of underlying Acqua filetto treatments of Amalfi Light leather seat surfaces are a modern interpretation that conveys luxury and attention to detail. The seat inserts feature horizontal ribbing, another retro feature made more delicate and sophisticated in its contemporary execution. The upper instrument panel is finished in Black Abalone-coloured leather, while the lower is Amalfi Light suede. Metallic accents on the door panels and steering wheel spokes are another link to the exterior design. Digital Design Ford of Europes Design Group created a specoal team at its Dunton, England, design studio to create the Focus Vignale Concept. The team took advantage of powerful resources to design the concept vehicle entirely withen the digital environment, and record time.故障的分析、尺寸的决定以及凸轮的分析和应用前言介绍：作为一名设计工程师有必要知道零件如何发生和为什么会发生故障，以便通过进行最低限度的维修以保证机器的可靠性。有时一次零件的故障或者失效可能是很严重的一件事情，比如，当一辆汽车正在高速行驶的时候，突然汽车的轮胎发生爆炸等。另一方面，一个零件发生故障也可能只是一件微不足道的小事，只是给你造成了一点小麻烦。一个例子是在一个汽车冷却系统里的暖气装置软管的松动。后者发生的这次故障造成的结果通常只不过是一些暖气装置里冷却剂的损失，是一种很容易被发现并且被改正的情况。能够被零件进行吸收的载荷是相当重要的。一般说来，与静载重相比较，有两个相反方向的动载荷将会引起更大的问题，因此，疲劳强度必须被考虑。另一个关键是材料是可延展性的还是脆性的。例如，脆的材料被认为在存在疲劳的地方是不能够被使用的。很多人错误的把一个零件发生故障或者失效理解成这样就意味着一个零件遭到了实际的物理破损。无论如何，一名设计工程师必须从一个更广泛的范围来考虑和理解变形是究竟如何发生的。一种具有延展性的材料，在破裂之前必将发生很大程度的变形。发生了过度的变形，但并没有产生裂缝，也可能会引起一台机器出毛病，因为发生畸变的零件会干扰下一个零件的移动。因此，每当它不能够再履行它要求达到的性能的时候，一个零件就都算是被毁坏了（即使它的表面没有被损毁）。有时故障可能是由于两个两个相互搭配的零件之间的不正常的磨擦或者异常的振动引起的。故障也可能是由一种叫蠕变的现象引起的，这种现象是指金属在高温下时一种材料的塑性流动。此外，一个零件的实际形状可能会引起故障的发生。例如，应力的集中可能就是由于轮廓的突然变化引起的，这一点也需要被考虑到。当有用两个相反方向的动载荷，材料不具有很好的可延展性时，对应力考虑的评估就特别重要。一般说来，设计工程师必须考虑故障可能发生的全部方式，包括如下一些方面：压力变形磨损腐蚀振动环境破坏固定设备松动在选择零件的大小与形状的时候，也必须考虑到一些可能会产生外部负载影响的空间因素，例如几何学间断性，为了达到要求的外形轮廓及使用相关的连接件，也会产生相应的残余应力。凸轮是被应用的最广泛的机械结构之一。凸轮是一种仅仅有两个组件构成的设备。主动件本身就是凸轮，而输出件被称为从动件。通过使用凸轮，一个简单的输入动作可以被修改成几乎可以想像得到的任何输出运动。常见的一些关于凸轮应用的例子有：凸轮轴和汽车发动机工程的装配专用机床自动电唱机印刷机自动的洗衣机自动的洗碗机高速凸轮(凸轮超过1000 rpm的速度)的轮廓必须从数学意义上来定义。无论如何，大多数凸轮以低速(少于500 rpm)运行而中速的凸轮可以通过一个大比例的图形表示出来。一般说来，凸轮的速度和输出负载越大，凸轮的轮廓在被床上被加工时就一定要更加精密。材料的设计属性当他们与抗拉的试验有关时，材料的下列设计特性被定义如下。静强度：一个零件的强度是指零件在不会失去它被要求的能力的前提下能够承受的最大应力。因此静强度可以被认为是大约等于比例极限，从理论上来说，我们可以认为在这种情况下，材料没有发生塑性变形和物理破坏。刚度：刚度是指材料抵抗变形的一种属性。这条斜的模数线以及弹性模数是一种衡量材料的刚度的一种方法。弹性：弹性是指零件能够吸收能量但并没有发生永久变形的一种材料的属性。吸收的能量的多少可以通过下面弹性区域内的应力图表来描述出来。韧性：韧性和弹性是两种相似的特性。无论如何，韧性是一种可以吸收能量并且不会发生破裂的能力。因此可以通过应力图里面的总面积来描述韧性，就像用图2.8 b 描绘的那样。显而易见，脆性材料的韧性和弹性非常低，并且大约相等。脆性：一种脆性的材料就是指在任何可以被看出来的塑性变形之前就发生破裂的材料。脆性的材料一般被认为不适合用来做机床的零部件，因为当遇到由轴肩，孔，槽，或者键槽等几何应力集中源引起的高的应力时，脆性材料是无法来产生局部屈服的现象以适应高的应力环境的。延展性：一种延展性材料会在破裂之前表现出很大程度上的塑性变形现象。延展性是通过可延展的零件在发生破裂前后的面积和长度的百分比来测量的。一个在发生破裂的零件，其伸长量如果为5%，则认为该伸长量就是可延展性和脆性材料分界线。可锻性：可锻性从根本上来说是指材料的一种在承受挤压或压缩是可以发生塑性变形的能力，同时，它也是一种在金属被滚压成钢板时所需金属的重要性能。硬度：一种材料的硬度是指它抵抗挤压或者拉伸它的能力。一般说来，材料越硬，它的脆性也越大，因此，弹性越小。同样，一种材料的极限强度粗略与它的硬度成正比。机械加工性能（或切削性）：机械加工性能是指材料的一种容易被加工的性能。通常，材料越硬，越难以加工。压应力和剪应力除抗拉的试验之外，还有其它一些可以提供有用信息的静载荷的实验类型。压缩测试：大多数可延展材料大约有相同特性，当它们处于受压状态的紧张状态时。极限强度，无论如何，不能够被用于评价压力状态。当一件具有可延展性的样品受压发生塑性变形时，材料的其它部分会凸出来，但是在这种紧张的状态下，材料通常不会发生物理上的破裂。因此，一种可延展的材料通常是由于变形受压而损坏的，并不是压力的原因。剪应力测试：轴，螺钉，铆钉和焊接件被用这样一种方式定位以致于生产了剪应力。一张抗拉试验的试验图纸就可以说明问题。当压力大到可以使材料发生永久变形或发生破坏时，这时的压力就被定义为极限剪切强度。极限剪切强度，无论如何，不等于处于紧张状态的极限强度。例如，以钢的材料为例，最后的剪切强度是处于紧张状态大约极限强度的75%。当在机器零部件里遇到剪应力时，这个差别就一定要考虑到了。动力载荷不会在各种不同的形式的力之间不停发生变化的作用力被叫作静载荷或者稳定载荷。此外，我们通常也把很少发生变化的作用力叫作静载荷。在拉伸实验中，被分次、逐渐的加载的作用力也被叫作静载荷。另一方面，在大小和方向上经常发生变化的力则被称为动载荷。动载荷可以被再细分为以下的3种类型。变载荷：所谓变载荷，就是说载荷的大小在变，但是方向不变的载荷。比如说，变载荷会产生忽大忽小的张应力，但不会产生压应力。周期性载荷：像这样的话，如果大小和方向同时改变，则就是说这种载荷会反复周期性的产生变化的拉应力和压应力，这种现象往往就伴随着应力在方向和大小上的周期性变化。冲击载荷：这类载荷是由于冲击作用产生的。一个例子就是一台升降机坠落到位于通道底部的一套弹簧装置上，这套装置产生的力会比升降机本身的重量大上好几倍。当汽车的一个轮胎碰撞到道路上的一个突起或者路上的一个洞时，相同的冲击荷载的类型也会在汽车的减震器弹簧上发生。疲劳失效疲劳极限线图 正如图2.10a所示，如果材料的某处经常会产生大量的周期性作用力，那么在材料的表面就很可能会出现裂缝。裂缝最初是在应力超过它极限压力的地方开始出现的，而通常这往往是有微小的表面缺陷的地方，例如有一处材料出现瑕疵或者一道极小的划痕。当循环的次数增加时，最初的裂缝开始在轴的周围的逐渐产生许多类似的裂缝。所以说，第一道裂缝的意义就是指应力集中的地方，它会加速其它裂缝的产生。一旦整个的外围斗出现了裂缝，裂缝就会开始向轴的中心转移。最后，当剩下的固体的内部地区变得足够小，且当压力超过极限强度时，轴就会突然发生断裂。对断面的检查可以发现一种非常有趣的图案，如图2.13中所示。外部的一个环形部分相对光滑一些，因为原来表面上相互交错的裂缝之间不断地发生磨擦导致了这种现象的产生。无论如何，中心部分是粗糙的，表明中心是突然发生了断裂，类似于脆性材料断裂时的现象。这就表明了一个有趣的事实。当正在使用的机器零件由于静载荷的原因出现问题时，由于材料具有的延展性，他们通常会发生一定程度的变形。尽管许多地由于静压力导致的零件故障可以通过频繁的做实际的观察并且替换全部发生变形的零件来避免。不管怎样，疲劳失效有助于起到警告的作用。汽车中发生故障的零件中的90%的原因都是因为疲劳的作用。一种材料的疲劳强度是指在压力的反复作用下的抵抗产生裂缝的能力。持久极限是用来评价一种材料的疲劳强度的一个重要参数。进一步说明就是，持久极限就是指在无限循环的作用力下不引起失效的压力值。让我们回头来看在图2.9 所示的疲劳试验机器的。试验是这样被进行的：一件小的重物被插入，电动机被启动。在试样的失效过程中，由计算寄存器记录下循环的次数N，并且弯曲压力的相应最大量由第2.5 方程式计算。然后用一个新的样品替换掉被毁坏的样品，并且将另一个重物插入以增加负荷量。压力的新的数值再次被计算，并且相同的程序再次被重复进行，直到零件的失效只需要一个完整周期时为止。然后根据压力值和所需的循环的次数来绘制一个图。正如图表2.14a所示图形，该图被称为持久极限曲线或者S-N 曲线。由于这需要的前提是要进行无限次的循环，所以我们可以以100万个循环用来作循环参考单位。因此，持久极限可以从图表2.14a那里看到，该材料是在承受了100万个循环后而没有发生失效的。用图2.14 描绘的关系对于钢的材料来说更为典型，因为当N 接近非常大的数字时，曲线就会变得水平。因此持久极限等于曲线接近一条水平的切线时的压力水平。由于包含了大量的循环，在绘图时，N通常会被按照对数标度来画，如图2.14 b中所示。当采用这样的方法做时，水平的直线就可以更容易发现材料的持久极限值。对于钢的材料来说，持久极限值大约等于极限强度的50%。无论如何，已经加工完成的表面如果不是一样的光滑，持久极限的值就会被降低。例如，对于钢材料的零件来说，63 微英寸（ in ）的机械加工的表面，零件的持久极限占理论的持久极限的百分比降低到了大约40%。而对于粗糙的表面来说 （300in，甚至更多），百分比可能降低到25%左右的水平。最常见的疲劳损坏的类型通常是由于弯曲应力所引起的。其次就是扭应力导致的失效，而由于轴向负载引起的疲劳失效却极少发生。弹性材料通常使用从零到最大值之间变化的剪应力值来做实验，以此来模拟材料实际的受力方式。就一些有色金属而论，当循环的次数变得非常大时，疲劳曲线不会随着循环次数的增大而变得水平。，而疲劳曲线的继续变小，表明不管作用力有多么的小，多次的应力反复作用都会引起零件的失效。这样的一种材料据说没有持久极限。对于大多数有色金属来说，它们都有一个持久极限，数值大小大约是极限强度的25%。温度对屈服强度和弹性模数的影响一般说来，当在说明一种拥有特殊的属性的材料时，如弹性模数和屈服强度，表示这些性能在室温环境下就可以存在。在低的或者较高的温度下，材料的特性可能会有很大的不同。例如，很多金属在低温时会变得更脆。此外，当温度升高时，材料的弹性模数和屈服强度都会变差。图2.23 显示了低碳钢的屈服强度在从室温升高到1000oC过程中被降低了大约70%。当温度升高时，图2.24显示了低碳钢在弹性模数E方面的削减。正如从图上可以看见的那样，弹性模数在从室温升高到1000oC过程中大约降低了30%。从这张图表中，我们也能看到在室温下承受了一定载荷而不会发生变形的零件却可能在高温时承受相同载荷时发生永久变形。 蠕变： 一种塑性变形的现象由于温度效应的影响，金属中产生了一种被称为蠕变的现象，一个承受了一定的载荷的零件的塑性变形是按照一个时间函数来逐渐增加的。蠕变现象在室温的条件下也是存在的，但它发生的过程是如此之慢，以致于很少变得像在预期寿命中温度被升高到300oC或更多时那样显著，逐渐增加的塑性变形可能在一段短的时期内变得很明显。材料的抗蠕变强度是指材料抵抗蠕变的属性，并且抗蠕变强度的数据可以通过处理长期的蠕变试验(模拟实际零件的操作条件)来获得。在试验的过程中，给定的材料在规定的温度下的塑性应变被被进行了实时监控。由于蠕变是一种塑性变形现象，发生了蠕变的零件的尺寸可能就会被永久的改变。因此，如果一个零件是在很强的强度下运转的话，那么设计工程师必须精确地预言将在机器的使用寿命期间可能发生的蠕变的次数。否则，与此伴随的或者相关的问题就可能发生。在高温下，当螺栓被用来紧固零件时，蠕变就可能变成一个必须解决的问题。处在压力状态下的螺钉，蠕变是按照一个时间函数来发生的。因为变形是塑性的，夹紧力的损失将可能导致螺纹连接件的意外松动。像这种特殊的现象，通常被称为松弛，我们可以通过进行适当的蠕变强度时测试来确定是不是发生了蠕变。图2.25显示了三种承受了恒定的张紧力的低碳钢零件的典型的蠕变曲线。从中，我们可以注意到在高温条件下，蠕变发生的速度逐渐加速，直到零件失效。从图表里的时间轴上(x轴)，我们可以描述在10年的时间里，这种产品的预期寿命。 总结机器设计者必须理解进行抗拉的静止强度的测试目的。这种试验可以确定被在设计方程式过程中使用的许多金属的机械特性。像弹性模数，比例极限，屈服强度，弹性，以及延展性等等可以根据抗拉试验来决定它们的特性。动载荷是指那些，在大小和方向上发生变化并且可能需要对机器零件在抵抗失效能力上的研究。由于应力的反复作用，允许使用的安全应力是基于材料的持久极限而不是基于屈服强度或者是极限强度。压力集中在机器零件改变尺寸的位置发生，例如在一块平的金属板上的一个孔或者一块平板、一个沟槽、一个圆轴上的皮带在宽度方向上的突然变化。尤其是在一块平板上或一块条板上有一个孔的情况下，当孔的大小减少时，最大应力的值相对于平均应力变得大得多。减少的压力集中影响的方法通常就是使在形状上的变化更有规律性。被设计出来的机械零件被用于在低于屈服强度或者极限强度的一些允许的环境下使用。这种方法可以用来照顾到在加工期间像材料属性的变化和残余应力的产生这样的未知因素， 以及用来做近似而不是精确计算的方程式。根据屈服强度或者极限强度来确定安全系数以决定安全应力的大小。温度能影响金属的机械特性。温度的增加可能会引起金属的热胀和蠕变，并且还可能降低它的屈服强度和它的弹性模数。如果大多数金属不被允许在温度发生变化时发生膨胀或者收缩，那么压力就会被当做载荷来看待。这现象在依靠干涉配合来进行零件装配时是有益的。一个毂或者孔的内径比与它相配的轴或者圆柱的直径小一点。先将毂加热后，由于热胀冷缩，此时可以轻松的将轴插入其中。当它冷却以后，同样由于热胀冷缩，它的内孔直径会变小，从而对插入其中的轴产生了很大的摩擦力，有效的防止了轴的松动。计算机辅助制造构造的类型盘形凸轮. 这类凸轮是最受欢迎的类型之一，因为这种凸轮的设计和制造是比较简单和容易的。如图6.1所示的盘形凸轮。可以注意到从动件移动到了与凸轮的旋转轴垂直的位置。所有的凸轮都按照两个不同的实体在运转时不会互相碰撞的基本原理来运行。因此，随着凸轮的旋转（在这种情况下，一般是逆时针转），从动件要么向上移动要么就接受适当的约束。我们应该把注意力集中于防止从动件发生粘接和使从动件的运动满足生产的要求。当从动件向下移动时，弹簧需要使从动件的棍子和凸轮的轮廓保持。棍子是被用来减少齿轮接触表面的磨擦力的。对于凸轮的每次旋转来说，从动件通过对凸轮底部死点的冲击使其移动到顶端。 图6.2 所示的是一个带有一个尖顶从动件的盘形凸轮。复杂的动作可以通过这类从动件产生，因为一个点能够精确地跟随着凸轮轮廓的任何突然变化。无论如何，这